Waste Recycling And Its Implementation In Pakistan Environmental Sciences Essay

Supply concatenation direction is the organisation and coordination of a complex web of activities involved in deliver a completed merchandise to the end-user. It is a really important concern procedure and map includes sourcing and natural stuffs to the warehouse, roll uping merchandises and fabrication, trailing, and storage, distribution through the different channels and delivered to the end-users. Supply concatenation construction based on the internal undertaking, and external providers, and external distributers, every bit good as clients. Firms may be associates of multiple supply ironss at one clip. The coordination and direction is extra complicated by the worldwide participants spread across many clip zones and geographic boundaries. The direction of a supply concatenation is in add-on influenced by client chances, authorities ordinance, the environment, globalisation, and competition and information engineering. Turning urbanisation and alterations in the paradigm of life, give to coevals of lifting measures of wastes and it ‘s at the present going one more menace to our already degraded milieus. However, in current old ages, waste to energy expertness have been developed to turn out clean energy back and forth the burning of municipal solid waste in specially designed power flora equipped with the most modern-day pollution control equipment to spotless emanations. Yet, difficult waste direction patterns are different for developed and lifting states. In developing states similar to Pakistan, establishments exciting with the duty to make determinations on solid waste organisation, operate in the immense information, policy and program vacuity and deficiency so the capableness to this looming environmental catastrophe. Early successes in Pakistan ‘s put to deathing its National protection Strategy, advancement has caught up due to institutional dislocation on the portion of the disposal policies and patterns. In add-on to govern ineffectualness and dishonesty, Pakistan has non funded environmental protection labours adequately. A January 2000 history released by the office of Environment showed so as to Pakistan presently spends about $ 17 million per twenty-four hours on pollution-related onslaught, though, $ 84 million is needed to rectify the state ‘s environmental jobs, and $ 1.8 billion per twenty-four hours in added wellness attention disbursals stem from pollution-connected causes. A demand of support is obvious in Pakistan ‘s environmental protection labours. The former authorities cited deficiency of money as the ground for armed robbery in set uping the Pakistan milieus Protection Council, an ecological protection watchdog group so as to the authorities had agreed to set up several old ages before ( but merely late recognized ) . However, the SDPI has estimated so as to the authorities allocates now 0.04 % of the entire public division development plan fiscal program on the environment, and 70 % of the money for environment are loans as of foreign loaners. Pakistan ‘s attempt to raise the living rules of its citizens has destined that economic development has chiefly taken precedency over ecological issues. Unbridled employ of risky chemicals, and industrial action has contributed to a figure of environmental and wellness jeopardies. A great trade of the state suffers as of a deficiency of drinkable H2O owing to industrial waste and undeveloped flux off that contaminates imbibing irrigate supplies. Poverty and far above the land population growing have aggravated, and to a certain extent, caused, these ecological jobs though Pakistan is renowned for its ton scopes and countries of unhurt wilderness, the state approved statute law to protect its milieus merely in the history 10 old ages.1.2 Problem StatementThe sensed consciousness and importance of waste recycling and it execution in Pakistan1.3 Research Hypothesis:Null hypothesis: The mean difference of overall sensed importance of waste direction and its execution is zero. ( md =0 ) H1: Perceived consciousness and importance of corporate societal duty is every bit considered and implemented in Waste direction. H2: Perceived consciousness and importance of waste recycling planning is every bit implemented in Waste direction. H3: Perceived consciousness importance of international criterions is every bit implemented in Waste direction. H4: Perceived consciousness and importance of clip ingestion factor is every bit implemented in Waste direction. H5: Perceived consciousness and importance of cost efficiency factor is every bit implemented in waste direction. H6: Perceived consciousness and importance of instruction and preparation of employees is every bit implemented in waste direction1.4 Outline of the surveySmall measure of natural modesty direction over many being and go oning high population expansion has had a negative clang on Pakistan ‘s environment. Undeveloped flux off caused by go oning deforestation — and industrial surplus have polluted H2O commissariats, and mill and agencies of transit emanations have degraded air quality in the metropolis centres. Similar to other different developing states, Pakistan has given particular attending on accomplishing self-adequacy in nutrient production, garnering energy demands, and incorporating its high velocity of population growing rather than on restricting taint or other environmental jeopardies. As a emerald concerns have non been the authoritiess top chief concern. Yet, as Pakistan ‘s metropoliss undergo from the effects of atmosphere pollution and unplanned grow ing has caused debasement, ecological issues have become most of import. Safeguarding public wellness, every bit good as conserving Pakistan ‘s usual admirations, has made ecological protection progressively of import. In an effort to reinstate the old heedlessness to the state ‘s lifting environmental jobs, in 1992 the disposal issued its National Conservation Report ( NCSR ) exactness Pakistan ‘s environmental wellness, its sustainable ends, and feasible docket options for the hereafter by agencies of the National Conservation Goals. Formation on the Pakistan Environmental defence Regulation of 1983, the NCSR set three ends for the state ‘s ecological protection attempts: protection of natural resources, indorsement of sustainable growing and betterment of competency in the usage and organisation of resources. Fourteen agenda countries were targeted for chief concern execution, including energy efficiency betterments, renewable resource growth/deployment, pollution avoidance/reduction, urban waste direction, institutional hold up of common resources, and add-on of population and ecological plans. Introducing EIA civilisation in a state like Pakistan was a difficult and disputing undertaking chiefly when the environmental establishments were weak and consciousness degree was near to the land. It is rather encouraging so as to now the EIA procedure has in advancement to get down in the province in an organized mode. Integration of ecological concerns in assorted disposal policies has been ensured. Any new strategy before it is accepted has to go through from side to side a procedure of EIA, which has become distant, more rigorous. Public part has been made obligatory for EIA assessment. The media has turn out to be rather witting of the world and any new undertaking that is recognized rises concerns either as of the public sector or private division. However there is motionless a demand for development and get the better ofing the reasonable restraints. There are uncomplete capacities and capablenesss of legion bureaus responsible for protecting milieus in relation to the appra isal of the Initial Environmental trial or Environmental Impact Assessment information for new development undertakings. There have been about no readying plans for the individuals accountable for the rating of IEE/EIA information. Recycling is an thought based on do-gooders and common sense. The undertaking reflects the group of industry towards future constructs of recycling in Pakistan papers market. Merely 50 % ( approx ) paper is shaped by restricted industries of which 20 % is used. The remainder 30 % is imported from dissimilar states similar to Indonesia ( 70 % ) . Pakistan ‘s constabularies does non let bring in of recycle paper. Therefore 35 % virgin paper is imported. 80 % paper recycled in Pakistan is virgin papers therefore provide paper recycling an advantage to provide quality merchandises to the restricted market at highly inferior monetary values. The job of greening supply concatenation is critical for the successful execution of industrialised ecosystems and industrial environmentalism. From an organisational and environmental position, it is important to understand the fortunes and what jobs exist in this field of research. Green supply refers to the method in which inventions in supply concatenation direction and fabrication buying may be careful in the context of the environment.Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEWIn today ‘s scenario companies can non disregard ecological issues. Increasing authorities regulation and stronger community authorizations for environmental answerability have been brought into these issues keen on the executive suite, and on strategic planning dockets. On the same juncture, companies are incorporating the supply concatenation processes to take down disbursals and better service clients. These two tendencies are non independent, companies have to affect providers and buyers to acquire together and even exceed the environmental chance of the clients and the authoritiess ( Baumol, 1997 ) . The supply concatenation has been traditionally distinguishable as a one manner, integrated fabrication procedure in which natural stuffs are converted into terminal finished merchandises, after that delivered to clients. The supply concatenation includes merely those behaviours associated with fabrication, as of natural stuff acquisition to concluding manufactured goods bringing. However, due to recent altering environmental supplies impacting fabrication operations, lifting attending is given to turning environmental direction ( EM ) tactics and schemes for the supply concatenation. Several researches have investigated legion countries like Ecological factors taking to the growing of an comprehensive environmental supply concatenation, the fundamental differences between the drawn-out supply concatenation and the conventional supply concatenation, The added challenges presented by the extension Presents public presentation events appropriate for the comprehensive supply concatenation. Develops a cosmopolitan process towards accomplishing and keeping the emerald supply concatenation ( Dinan, 1992 ) . The number of organisations contemplating the combination of environmental patterns lament on the strategic programs and every twenty-four hours operations is continuously increasing. Many enterprises have provided incentives for organisations to turn out to be more environmentally benign. Number of these ordinance ambitious plans are compulsory, although progressively legion voluntary environmental plans are excessively introduced by organisations. Organizations view legion of these environmental plans, which may consist technological and organisational development undertakings, as likely options for in front or keeping a competitory benefit. One environmental plan part that continues to derive in importance is one so as to focal points on the external relationships between organisations ( Joseph, 2002 ) . There is a turning demand for incorporating environmentally noise picks into supply concatenation direction research. The literature illustrates that a wide frame of mention for green supply-chain direction is non adequately urbanised. Regulative organic structures that devise ordinances to run into communal and ecological concerns to do easy growing of concern and economic system excessively suffer from its nonattendance. A compendious classification to assist academicians, research workers and practicians in sympathetic incorporate green supply concatenation as of a wider position is wanted. Further, sufficient text is available to deserve such categorization ( Sarivastava, 2007 ) . The job of greening supply concatenation is critical for the successful execution of industrialised ecosystems and industrial environmentalism. Scholars have argued so as to waste and emanations caused by the supply concatenation have become the major beginnings of serious environmental immoralities including planetary heating and acidic rain. Organizations have a ground for implementing these green supply concatenation policies, from reactive narrow grounds, to proactive planned and competitory benefit grounds. From an organisational and environmental position, it is important to understand the fortunes and what jobs exist in this field of research ( Edward, 1979 ) . The thought of supply ironss and supply concatenation direction is a relatively recent managerial regulation. The subject has evolved from beginnings including buying, advertisement, logistics, and operations direction. The issues include direction of stock list, customer-supplier relationships, merchandise growing, and buying. The supply concatenation encompasses each activity associated with the transmutation of goods and flow of natural stuffs, to the consumer. Material and information flow both upward and downward the supply concatenation ( Sarkis, 1995 ) . In this history, the supply concatenation is considered to be a additive process. The round and cosmopolitan doctrine of â€Å" bionetwork † thought is non openly included. Therefore, as of this text edition position, the add-on of the full cyclical supply concatenation is non considered to its definition. Number of text editions seems to diverge to this definition. This little case is model of common apprehension among this comparatively new hayfield. Developments in greening supply ironss have yet to scatter through the general text. Even though this is relatively anecdotal speculation, integrating of greening supply ironss into academic or educational survey has up till now to be to the full realized. Past patterns in this country seems to be as irregular and diverse as the grazing land of survey, with emerald supply ironss severely and/or unpredictably adept and investigated ( Galle, 1997 ) . Green supply refers to the method in which inventions in supply concatenation direction and fabrication buying may be careful in the context of the environment. A green supply concatenation organisation consists of the buying map ‘s engagement in behaviour that includes decline, recycling, re-consume and the permutation of stuffs. The construct of Green supply concatenation could be defined as the improving and monitoring environmental public presentation in the supply concatenation ( McIntyre and Pretlove ) . The word supply concatenation describes the system of providers, distributers and clients. It besides includes transit among the consumer and the provider, the environmental effects of the researching, fabrication, hive awaying, transporting, and devouring a merchandise, as disposing of the merchandise waste, be required to be good thought-out ( Lamming and Hampson ) . The intent of Green supply ironss from reactive monitoring of cosmopolitan environmental direction plans to extra proactive patterns such as the R ‘s of ecological direction and integrating â€Å" inventions † , excessively seem to be different. This deficiency of pattern and definition of green supply concatenation is non amazing, as its initial elements of concern environmental direction and supply concatenation direction are both relatively fresh countries of survey ( Johnson and Wang ) . The public presentation measuring system may be sole to every unit within an organisation or single organisation. These surveies decisions associated to the systems including and public presentation measuring: public presentation measuring systems may hold besides touchable or intangible steps with the same of every bit types used to mensurate public presentation, steps should be dynamic and present at different degrees, merchandises and procedures have to be included, systems and steps are best developed with a squad scheme with links to derivation from and corporate scheme, system should hold effectual internal and external communications, genuineness for consequences must be clearly be assigned and understood, systems have to supply brainpower to the determination shapers and non merely roll up informations, and the system must be capable of associating compensation, wagess, and public presentation measuring. It has besides been disputed that public presentation measuring have to turn to public presentation direction, where the organisation develops the ability to utilize public presentation measuring consequences and organisational construction to in world bring about alteration in the organisation ( Gupta, 1995 ) . We live in an epoch of intensifying environmental consciousness, where recycling of waste stuffs takes on an increasing graduated table and in about every part of the civilisation. Recycling has normally occurred because it has been efficient and economical. From the 1970s and onwards, though, the perceptual experience in modern-day rich societies has been that there must recycle even more, something that is articulated by bing or proposed difficult waste statute law. In Sweden, 1994, the manufacturer incrimination regulation has governed the digest and recycling of packaging resources, newspaper, autos and tyres. Furthermore, environmental legislators in legion European states require so as to a bulky portion of the waste paper flow should be recycled reasonably than deposited in landfills. The European merger uses the same arrange of disposition in its directives for waste. The good direction of waste has more than a few facets: political, communal, environmental, fiscal and profic ient. The aims of waste organisation policy differ small from province to state, the methods must be modified to the predominating state of affairs in each. These factors include the easiness of usage of proficient, fiscal, and human resources, peculiarly in developing states there is no individual correct technique to accomplish proper waste organisation. Nevertheless there are ordinary demands that have to be addressed by all states so as to wish to pull off wastes improved. It is excessively necessary to foretell how the present fortunes finding alteration, and to acknowledge appropriate methods to guarantee so as to what should be done with waste is done. As calculating the natural universe and measure of waste that finding arise in the chance is hard, a managerial mechanism is needed to do certain the regular supply of awake-to-date information ( Roberts and Bacon, 1997 ) . There is an anxiousness of who should be accountable for environmental issues in buying. Questions in past researches was whether it is most first-class to do a company ‘s buying subdivision responsible for pull offing the ecological public presentation of the supply concatenation. Since there are accountable for cost, release, and excellence issues, is it pale to add another degree of duty to this intent ( particularly with the organisation of ecological studies of providers ) . An reply, aid to better provider environmental public presentation rather than measuring it ( Osborn, 1997 ) . Balancing economic and environmental public presentation has turn out to be progressively important for organisations confronting competitory, regulative and community force per unit areas. With increased force for environmental sustainability, it is anticipated that endeavors were need to put to death schemes to diminish the environmental impacts of services and merchandises. To put up environmental image, endeavors have to re-evaluate the intent of concern. Success in turn toing environmental points may provide new gate-way for competition, and new ways to add importance to core concern plans. Approaches, such as cleansing agents, eco-efficiency, environmental, and production direction systems, have been implemented for green direction patterns ( Murphy and Braunschweig, 1996 ) The developed and production map ‘s place in corporate environmental has been good addressed in the content. The internal supply concatenation ‘s public presentation can paramount be managed within this intent. Since figures of reappraisals on environmentally cognizant fabricating have been finished, therefore the centre has been drawn on a few of the chief rules in this intent ( Murphy, 1995 ) . An issue at this clip is whether employees are competent of doing environmental determinations. What happens to liability and concern hazard when such antiphonal and sometimes technically many-sided issues are portion of the ecological determinations? Similar to excellence control, which has evolved to include everybody in an organisation, be able to environmental determinations be allowed to inculcate? These inquiries are unsafe since employee engagement is a pattern so as to research workers and practicians believe are in-between to pollution bar in the production intent ( Kitazawa, 1999 ) . In a survey of automotive maker ‘s employee engagement in ecological determinations was emphasized. Other than, even with this emphasis, findings showed that the sum of worker part was much fewer than the supposed engagement as mentioned by direction. It was found so as to inadequate proficient expertness in ecological issues was one cause for limited worker part. This survey besides points to a better significance of worker engagement, peculiarly when it comes to ecological issues. â€Å" Contribution † can run from seting an point keen on a reclaimable bin to part on a design for milieus undertaking ( Rothenberg 1999 ) . Loop fabrication is individual of the internal steps which can be used to acquire better the environmental public presentation of the interior supply concatenation. Drives closed-loop developed pattern. Closed fabrication is a process of bring forthing merchandises with no negative environmental clang. Currently, a great trade of the accent on cringle fabrication is on growing of back uping engineering. This internal cringle facilitates to decrease some waste streams that flow as of the production map, but require extra energy and capital to map and maintain. As fraction of the doctrine closed-loop developed a related issue to the emanations doctrine is replaceability, which has turn out to be much more popular with program for the milieus linkages. The finding of life series impacts of these replacements is still a hard proposition. The survey of pull offing in these milieus seems to be about non-existent. As of a research position this is individual of the more skill and tool goade d maps of the green supply concatenation ( Handfield and Melnyk, 1997 ) . Sing to green logistics, consequence on the public presentation of conveyance provider that are indirectly and in a consecutive line connected to provide concatenation. Canal power affects the strategic centre the whole supply concatenation, and as a consequence, the manner that conveyance is planned all through the supply concatenation. Geographic scattering has a direct consequence on the environmental and fiscal public presentation of the supply concatenation, in sight of the fact that the more physical dispersed is the supply concatenation, likely the uppermost of the internal and external disbursals of conveyance. though, there should be wonts of palliating that negative consequence of geographical scattering on the sustainable public presentation of conveyance and supply concatenation, such as the perpendicular and horizontal add-on of conveyance flows, so logistics add-on is the 3rd although non least of import issue that has a important consequence on supply-chain public pres entation. Though, it is important to happen out the consequence of integrating on green logistics public presentation ( Kitazawa and Sarkis, 1999 ) In an unadulterated thin supply concatenation nil stock lists and no loose. Several writers include taking off of waste and pull strategy as a strategic bend-thinking characteristic. This represent a parallel job as clip denseness nowadayss, since there can be multi-objective jobs among transport optimisation and stock list lessening. Consequently, it is important to put up how an stock list decrease scheme beneath a pull system can achieve its chief aim, and nevertheless clip, relieve its negative consequence on Green Logisticss and conveyances public presentations. It can be argument that thin developed has a constructive consequence on the environment, since its most of import focal point is on waste minimisation. On the extra manus, there are certain restraints that need to be taken into account to detect out whether or non bend-thinking has an optimistic impact on the overall green supply concatenation public presentation. ‘Modeling, program, and depth psychology of the tr aditional supply concatenation have chiefly on optimising the procurance of stuffs as of providers to the distribution of goods to clients ( Bruce and Daly, 2004 ) . The contentions in emerald selling and client dealingss are whether client attending in environmentally sound merchandises relates to existent purchase. Assorted surveies have exposed that involvement is normally senior than existent bargain. This statement is able to be made for either single clients or corporate and industrial purchasers. Even although this issue has been exposed to be single client phenomena the extension to concern purchasers needs a more entire rating ( Guide and Srivastava, 1997 ) . Lot of bookmans has looked at this job, but it is still a point of statement. In attempt, there argued that consumers and business-to-business clients have likewise attitudes, existent public presentation, and sympathetic of buying green merchandises. It Argue that concern consumers are more witting of environmental and green merchandises issues and features than single clients. Whether or non these client groups have tantamount degrees and apprehension of ecological issues with respect to buying merchandises were influence managerial selling schemes and patterns ( Dinan, 1992 ) . The logistics system and its readying are two of the extra strategic issues confronting logistics directors in this intent. Many determinations need to be made with expression upon to the house ‘s market, client, merchandise and logistical capital. Examples of characteristic logistics determinations comprise options such as direct bringing or hub-and-spoke, cardinal shop or distributed system, intermodal or individual signifier, and 3rd party services. some of the design and direction standard that support environmental readying in this country include less cargos, less intervention, shorter motions, extra direct paths, and improved infinite use. Other than, each of these issues includes trade-offs among release clip, reactivity, excellence and cost, every bit same as ecological public presentation ( McIntyre and Pretlove, 1998 ) . Most public regarded packaging as bad for the milieus, there still take packaged over loose options when purchasing. Up till now, grounds has shown to some companies, after transfusing extra environmentally preferred packaging, had additions portions in market. This issue relates to client attitudes and behaviour. Whether these state of affairss are appropriate to industrial purchasers and trade is another job. A survey of ecological packaging and its power on industrial purchasing is an issue so as to hold non received much notice. Although some issues pertinent to buying pattern after manner of packaging Torahs have been shared ( Walton and Melnyk, 1998 ) . Rearward logistics as an environmentally watchful attack by incorporating resource decrease contrary distribution. Change by reversal logistics is the return, ensuing from recycling, or disposal by agencies of the minimisation of waste which contains in more efficient mode and change by reversal distribution procedures. Change by reversal logistics operations comprise the undermentioned major ladder: aggregation, division, compaction or disassembly, transitional dispensation, bringing and add-on. The operational emphasis is dependent on the sort of stuff or constituent so as to flows in the contrary logistics canal. For illustration, disassembly were be necessary for transcript machines, while fictile bottles need compaction. Change by reversal logistics is a cardinal proficiency that does non be in most alone equipment makers and organisations, outsourcing to 3P logistics forte companies to flux operations in this intent have become really well-liked. The growing of such 3rd party p roviders may provide possible competition to original equipment makers, if these contrary logistics organisations make a determination to remanufacture and remanufacture merchandises ( Dunn, 1995 ) . In a survey of industrial location networking ‘s influence on economic systems in ecological organisation, Scholars found that these tactics and schemes can assist organisations derive environmental cost nest eggs. Such nest eggs patent in the signifier of fewer expensive environmental direction communications and services, decreased incidence and strength of land-use struggles, and an improved ability on the fraction of the public division to implement environmental system. Consequently, close and inter-firm webs could be a method to assist little organisations turn out to be more effectual environmental associates. The usage of eco-manufacturing Parkss and authorities sponsored waste exchange plans as techniques to help the connexion between little and large companies. Another move toward is to help little companies is from side to side mentoring plans from big companies. Eloquent that there is a difference between large and little corporation ‘s engagement and credence of green supply concatenation rules is one job for probe. One more, of import issue is formative demands and patterns help little makers become extra involved in this process ( Sarkis, 1999 ) . The survey of industry differences in green supply concatenation processs and patterns is a concern that has been observed in every of the maps have found fabrication differences in how organisations fit in environmental scheme. Part of the ground is to portion the same stakeholders that put force. The troubles of widening this type of depth psychology to green supply concatenation investigate are the heterogeneousness of providers and customarily in the supply concatenation. That is, it is difficult to merely hold a supply concatenation made up of substance industry companies, for case. The influences of NGO ‘s, adept organisations and extra stakeholders on green supply concatenation direction pattern may be investigated, when fabrication features are to be evaluated ( Guide and Srivastava, 1997 ) . To organize such an association such that ecological liabilities are minimized, is a job. These organisations are destined to organize and fade out fast. Responsibility for some environmentally malignant behaviour by the corporation or its members may give unanticipated liabilities and punishment, with duties of this behaviour hard to pull. Having an initial ecological scheme, which direct the formation and operations of this association, is non normally individual of the concerns of organizing these types of organisations. In this instance larn, â€Å" win-come first † chances did look to populate, these chances are fewer and less as the organisation matures. How to continue and build on these patterns for ecological and economic sustainability is one more issue ( Carter and Ellram, 1998 ) . It has been argued that corporate environmental plans work most first-class when there are fraction of a strategic plan and vision. up till now, when covering with supply ironss, with a assortment of grades of providers to many likely degrees of clients, the supply concatenation ( in general ) and the environmental supply concatenation ( in demanding ) are merely as high-quality, particularly in conditions of shuting the supply concatenation cringle. The power of changing corporate environmental schemes and where at that place live on the environmental program and behavior scope on the supply concatenation wants to be investigated ( Hanna and Newman, 1995 ) . Strategic corporate public presentation dealingss are the consideration of ready public presentation measurings for green supply ironss. Performance capacity has been urbanized for intents of pull offing the assorted basicss of the supply concatenation. Many of these events are clip and cost based. The employ of public presentation steps finding be used for pull offing every of the maps and basicss. The short-word focal point of these steps finding makes it hard as of a greening position. In information, there is even a end to travel farther than simple greening events to sustainability public presentation steps, integrating other socially tilting factors ( Murphy and Braunschweig, 1996 ) . Arises for the overall green supply concatenation direction strategy is the dynamic natural universe of the merchandise life rhythm and its deductions on the assortment of patterns. Academics has argued that the managerial accent on which maps it develops and ropes in the green supply concatenation is dependent on the merchandise life rhythm, whether the goods is in the early freshness phases or adulthood or diminution phases, whether the association is seting more emphasis on the procurance phase ( choosing suited sellers ) or on rearward logistics ( adequate merchandise and material exist for well-organized contrary logistics channels ) . Therefore, the issue at this clip is that organisations be aftering for a long -term green supply ironss need to be witting of the necessary supplies for beef uping the supply concatenation as it matures ( Sarkis, 1999 ) . In any city it is possible to tie in the criterion of waste organisation with the overall â€Å" normal of life † enjoyed by its dwellers. Increasing outlooks of environmental betterment denote that disposal installations have to be suitably designed, engineered and managed. The preparation of a thorough and effective program is a drawn-out occupation if done manually, and the conversation introduces the benefits that are able to be obtained from the employ of computing machine theoretical accounts to assist, but non set back, human engagement in the preparation of a program. Short mention were be made to blow direction theoretical accounts by now used by waste directors to make and update tactics ( Edward, 1979 ) . The issues associating to mounting solid waste are fast geting mammoth size in the lifting states of Asia. The bulk of the states, yet, continue to chiefly focus on on accomplishing high economic expansion and pay light attending to blow organisation. This article takes a elaborate expression on the insufficiencies of waste organisation in Asia and underscores that requires for greater international assignment in undertaking the menace. In this background, the factors behind lifting trade in reclaimable wastes linking Asiatic states and founds that the inauspicious economic and ecological impacts ensuing from such trade far outweigh the announced advantages ( Baumol, 1997 ) . Few factors require to be considered while environmental analysis. Nature ‘s cost- consequence of chemicals and risky waste on dirt and H2O fortunes. Animals- chemicals on wildlife and grocery rhythms. Waste accretion strains micro-organisms and is a good extension country for vectors e.g. mosquitoes. Annihilation of the beauty and composure of the universe. Fiscal system- the long term properties of waste on the milieus are difficult to see accordingly it is much easier to disregard our waste now and leave the chance coevals to literally pay out the monetary value ( Angell, 1999 ) . We throw off many things every twenty-four hours runing as of ordinary trash to old packaging, cleaning resources and many dissimilar sorts of debris. Large measures of pesticides and fertilisers are besides leached keen on the environment as of farms, for illustration. Volumes of the gaseous, liquid or difficult wastes produced by developed and other industrial procedures are besides rather released. These emanations are simply partly controlled by pollution manage methods. Number of this industrial waste is discharged into the milieus in significant measures. Consequently what is the clang of all this and to what grade is it damaging to our wellness and milieus ( Carter, 2000 ) . Boxing seems to be all over the topographic point in the western universe. Our nutrient, drink, vesture, medical specialty, trappingss, computing machines, cleaning resources, publications etc all attack packaged in some signifier. The chief intent of packaging is to support the contents from injure. The concluding bundle often incorporates several types of wrapping stuffs to guarantee so as to the merchandise can be transported with no problem. One job with packaging stuff is that it is designed to be petrified off once the goods are put into usage. Provision it is non possible to redesign the manufactured goods to extinguish the covering or to recycle the packaging, subsequently the best option is to do certain the packaging does no injury to the environment merely the once it is discarded. Most packaging is non destructive to the environment in conditions of toxicity. Though, because many common packaging stuffs do non degrade one time there are extra, there maintain on add-on to the big volume of solid waste that green goods. If packaging is able to break up quickly it were be used of course. For illustration, figure of companies are planing plastics that determinate interrupt down through the act of bugs or visible radiation into safe merchandises. The rules of green chemical science pertinent to this stuff trade by agencies of returning safe substances to the milieus. The chief job at that place take up an progressively large sum of infinite in landfills and stand for an inefficient employ of the World ‘s capital. The toxic wastes free into the environment by a assortment of industrial operations present a much better menace ( Carter, 1998 ) . The taint Inventory presently contains inside informations on big fabrication sites, with the most possible to do taint, as designated in the Environmental Protection in 1990. The fewer risky, but many procedures are synchronized by Local Authorities. Numerous other beginnings of pollution are non incorporated, such as the notable part made from conveyance. Most drugs have some version to defy biological sordidness in the organic structure and these same versions lead to perseverance in the environment when the medical specialty is excreted via piss or faucal substance. The happening of pharmaceutical micro- pollutants in assorted irrigate environments has been investigated within legion surveies for decennary. Pharmaceuticals whether veterinary had discover ways into waste workss or watercourses and land H2O as the active pharmaceutical, metabolite transmutation merchandise. Countless drugs have been found in H2O, which is a cautiousness mark to the current handling of pharmaceutica ls that lead to future fittingness and environmental jobs ( Christmann, 2001 ) . Information indicates that pharmaceutical micro pollutants are detected on parts per trillion, distant below are acute toxicant degrees. However, optimistic grounds of an endocrinal perturbation consequence on aquatic life by agencies of studies on the feminisation of gentleman fish, notably the fresh water roach, doing intersex category or growing of egg cell in the testicles, anyplace estrogens ( from HRT, preventive and endogenous homo ) are present on the degree of one portion per billion. It has been postulated as the UK takes one tierce of its H2O of rivers by agencies of these estrogens degrees have the possible to come in the imbibing supply. The consequence of changeless exposure to these low degrees of contamination on worlds garbages unknown and statements to be relevant the precautional rule have been complete as a ground for act into cut downing the attending of pharmaceuticals in the milieus ( Geffen, 2000 ) . Policy proceedings have been undertaken in legion economically advanced states, to back recycling of municipal waste. The dramatic attention deficit disorder to in the figure of recycling plans in operation is partly a intent of non-economic influences such as alterations in concerns, often trigged by elector gustatory sensations for the milieus though, there exist comparatively a little figure of economic analyses in hold for this policy stance and the implicit in rule for and the apprehension of the conchoids of dissimilar policy steps is therefore often less than entire. It stresses that an economic point of position there is nil per se benign refering recycling. Recycling policies have to, merely as a policy, to go through cost-benefit and fiscal efficiency ( Handfield, 2002 ) . Recent researches have indicated that the methods designed to diminish solid waste are idols of fiscal virtuousness. For case, of recycling attempts and policies to advance such labours tend to concentrate wholly on benign ecological impacts, while abstracting as of other of import costs to civilisation. The differences in fiscal costs across policies can therefore frequently be significant. The above supplies the implicit in rule for a closer survey on the competency of recycling policies ( Melnyk, and Calatone, 2002 ) . Pakistan ‘s power ingestion has about tripled in the old 20 old ages. From 0.6 quadrillion Btu in 1980, Pakistan ‘s amount energy usage in 1998 stood at 1.7 quads. Pakistan histories for simply 0.5 % of sum universe energy usage. In footings of per capita energy usage, Pakistan ‘s pinnacle of 12.3 million Btu in 1998 is far greater than Bangladesh ‘s ( 3.3 million Btu ) although virtually on par by agencies of India ‘s ( 12.9 million ) . In contrast, China ‘s per capita power ingestion in 1998 was 27.0 million Btu, Iran ‘s was 72.4 million Btu, and Russia ‘s was 177.3 million Btu, as U.S. per capita usage was 350.7 million Btu. Pakistan ‘s power ingestion by sector shows so as to about half ( 49 % ) is credited to residential. The fabrication sector accounted for the bulk of the remainder by agencies of 33.5 % , while conveyance made up 13.2 % and the profitable sector was accountable for 4.3 % . Energy usage by fuel type showed s o as to oil made up 43.5 % , usual gas 38.3 % , and crude oil merely 5.1 % . Pakistan ‘s attempt to raise the living rules of its citizens has destined that economic development has chiefly taken precedency over ecological issues. Unbridled employ of risky chemicals, car emanations, and industrial action has contributed to a figure of environmental and wellness jeopardies, head in the center of H2O pollution. The state suffers through a deficiency of drinkable H2O owing to industrial waste and undeveloped that contaminates imbibing water supplies a great trade. In the metropoliss, widespread employ

Decision Analysis

CREATE Research Archive Published Articles & Papers 1-1-1980 Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis Detlof von Winterfeldt University of Southern California, [email  protected] edu Follow this and additional works at: http://research. create. usc. edu/published_papers Recommended Citation von Winterfeldt, Detlof, â€Å"Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis† (1980). Published Articles & Papers. Paper 35. http://research. create. usc. edu/published_papers/35 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by CREATE Research Archive.It has been accepted for inclusion in Published Articles & Papers by an authorized administrator of CREATE Research Archive. For more information, please contact [email  protected] edu. Acta Psychologica 45 (1980) 71-93 0 North-Holland Publishing Company STRUCTURING DECISION PROBLEMS FOR DECISION ANALYSIS * Detlof von WINTERFELDT ** University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA Structuring decisio n problems into a formally acceptable and manageable format is probably the most important step of decision analysis.Since presently no sound methodology for structuring exists, this step is still an art left to the intuition and craftsmanship of the individual analyst. After introducing a general concept of structuring, this paper reviews some recent advances in structuring research. These include taxonomies for problem identification and new tools such as influence diagrams and interpretative structural modeling. Two conclusions emerge from this review: structuring research is still limited to a few hierarchical concepts and it tends to ignore substantive problem aspects that delineate a problem it its real world context.Consequently structuring research has little to say about distinctions between typical problem classes such as regulation, siting, or budget allocation. As an alternative the concept of â€Å"prototypical decision analytic structures† is introduced. Such st ructures are developed to meet the substantive characteristics of a specific problem (e. g. , siting a specific Liquid Natural Gas plant) but they are at the same time general enough to apply to similar problems (industrial facility siting). As an illustration, the development of a prototypical analytic structure for environmental standard setting is described.Finally, some typical problem classes are examined and some requirements for prototypical structures are discussed. An introduction to problem structuring Decision analysis can be divided into four steps: structuring the problem; formulating inference and preference models; eliciting probabilities and utilities; and exploring the numerical model results. Prac* This research was supported by a grant from the Department of Defense and was monitored by the Engineering Psychology Programs of the Office of Naval Research, under contract # NOOO14-79C-0529.While writing this paper, the author discussed the problem of structuring exte nsively with Helmut Jungermann. The present version owes much to his thought. Please don’t take footnote 3 too seriously. It is part of a footnote war between Ralph Keeney and me. ** Presently with the Social Science Research Institute, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, CA 90007, (213) 741-6955. 12 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems titioners of decision analysis generally agree that structuring is the most important and difficult step of the analysis.Yet, until recently, decision analytic research has all but ignored structuring, concentrating instead on questions of modeling and elicitation. As a result, structuring was, and to some extent still is, considered the ‘art’ part of decision analysis. This paper examines some attempts to turn this art into a science. Trees are the most common decision analytic structures. Decision trees, for example, represent the sequential aspects of a decision problem (see Raiffa 1968 ; Brown et al. 1974). Other examples are goal trees for the representations of values (Keeney and Raiffa 1976) and event trees for the representation f inferential problem aspects (Kelly and Barclay 1973). In fact, trees so much dominate decision analytic structures that structuring is often considered synonymous to building a tree. This paper, however, will adopt a more general notion of decision analytic structuring. According to this notion, structuring is an imaginative and creative process of translating an initially ill-defined problem into a set of welldefined elements, relations, and operations. The basic structuring activities are identifying or generating problem elements (e. g. , events, values, actors, decision alternatives) nd relating these elements by influence relations, inclusion relations, hierarchical ordering relations, etc. The structuring process seeks to formally represent the environmental (objective) parts of the decision problem and the decision makers†™ or experts’ (subjective) views, opinions, and values. Graphs, maps, functional equations, matrices, trees, physical analogues, flow charts, and venn diagrams are all possible problem representations. In order to be useful structures for decision analysis, such representations must facilitate the subsequent steps of modeling, elicitation, and numerical nalysis. Three phases can be distinguished in such a generalized structuring process. In the first phase the. problem is identified. The elements which are generated in this phase are the substantive features of the problem: the decision maker(s); the generic classes of alternatives, objectives, and events; individuals or groups affected by the decision; characteristics of the problem environment. This list is pruned by answering questions such as: what is the purpose of the analysis? For whom is the analysis to be performed? Which alternatives can the decision maker truly control?At this stage only very rough relations betw een problem elements are constructed. Examples include organizational relations D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 73 among decision makers, influence relations between classes of actions and events, and rough groupings of objectives. Products of this problem identification step are usually not very formal, and are seldom reported in the decision analytic literature. They may be in the form of diagrams, graphs, or ordered lists. Among the few documented examples are Hogarth et al. (1980) for the problem of city planning and Fischer and von Winterfeldt 1978) for the problem of setting environmental standards. In the second structuring step, an overall analytic structure is developed. The elements generated in this step are possible analytic problem representations. Besides tree structures, these may include more complex structures previously developed for similar problems such as screening structures for siting decisions or signal detection structures for medical decis ion making. Paradigmatic structures of alternative modeling approaches (e. g. , systems dynamics or linear programming) which could fit the problem should also be examined at this step [ 1 I.A creative activity in this structuring phase is to relate and combine part structures, e. g. , simulation structures with evaluation structures, or decision trees of different actors. From the candidate structures and their combinations an overall structure is selected which is judged most representative of the problem and manageable for further modeling and elicitation. Only a handful of analytic structures have been developed which are more complex than decision trees. Gardiner and Ford (in press) combined simulation and evaluation structures.Keeney (in press) developed decision analytic structure for the whole process of siting energy facilities. Von Winterfeldt (1978) constructed a generic structure for regulatory decision making. The third structuring phase coincides with the more traditio nal and limited notion of structuring. In this step the parts of the overall analytic structure are formalized in detail by refining the problem elements and relations identified in the first step. This includes a detailed construction of decision trees, event trees, and goal trees. Linkages between part structures are established, e. g. between simulation and evaluation structures. Decision makers and groups affected by possible decisions are specified together with events or actions linking [l] Although such structures alternatives to decision analytic in the remainder of this paper. structures should be considered, I will ignore 14 D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems them. Examples of this structuring step can be found in most decision analytic textbooks. This three step structuring process of identifying the problem, developing an analytic structure, and formalizing its detailed content seldom evolves in strict sequence.Instead, the process is recursive, with repeat ed trials and errors. Often the analyst decides on a specific structure and later finds it either unmanageable for modeling or non-representative of the problem. The recognition that a structure needs refmement often follows the final step of decision analysis, if numerical computations and sensitivity analyses point to places that deserve more detailed analysis. Knowing about the recursive nature of the structuring process, it is good decision analysis practice to spend much effort on structuring and to keep an open mind about possible revisions.The above characterization of the structuring process will be used as a format to review the structuring literature. First, the use of problem taxonomies for the step of problem identification is examined. Methods to select analytic approaches are then reviewed as possible aids for the second structuring step. Finally, some recent advances in formalizing part structures are discussed. * Two conclusions emerged from this review and motivated the subsequent sections of this paper: (1) Although structuring research has much to say about analytic distinctions between decision problems and structures (e. . , whether a problem is multiattributed or not), it has little bearing on substantive problem distinction (e. g. , the difference between a typical regulation problem and a typical investment problem). (2) Structuring research is still limited to a few, usually hierarchical concepts and operations. Emphasis is put on simple, operational and computerized structuring. Little effort is spent on creating more complex combinations of structures that represent real problem classes. As an alternative, the concept of prototypical decision analytic structures is introduced.Such structures have more substance and complexity than the usual decision trees or goal trees. They are developed to meet the substantive characteristics of a specific problem, but are at the same time general enough to apply to similar problems. As an illustra tion, IIASA’s [21 development of a prototypical decision analytic [2] International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 75 structure for environmental standard setting will be described. Finally, several typical classes of decision problems will be examined and some requirements or prototypical structures will be discussed. Taxonomies for problem identification The taxonomies described in the following typically classify decision problems by analytic categories (e. g. , whether a problem is multiattributed or not) and they attempt to slice the universe of problems into mutually exclusive and exhaustive sets. The purpose of such taxonomies is twofold: to facilitate the identification of an unknown element (e. g. , a medical decision problem) with a class of problems (e:g. , diagnostic problem); and to aid the process of matching classes in the problem taxonomy (e. . , diagnostic problems) with an analyti c approach (e. g. , signal detection structures). Thus, by their own aspiration, problem taxonomies should be useful for the early phases of structuring decision problems. MacCrimmon and Taylor (1975) discuss on a rather general level the relationship between decision problems and solution strategies. Decision problems are classified according to whether they are ill-structured or well-structured, depending on the extent to which the decision maker feels familiar with the initial state of the problem, the terminal state, and the transformations equired to reach a desired terminal state. Three main factors contribute to ill-structuredness: uncertainty, complexity, and conflict. For each category MacCrimmon and Taylor discuss a number of solution strategies. These strategies include, for example, reductions of the perceptions of uncertainty, modeling strategies, information acquisition and processing strategies, and methods for restructuring a problem. Taylor (1974) adds to this class ification scheme four basic types of problems: resource specification, goal specification, creative problems, and well structured problems (see fig. 1).Problem types are identified by the decision maker’s familiarity with the three subparts of the problem. Taylor discusses what types of decision strategies are appropriate for each of these problem categories, for example, brainstorming for creative problems and operations research type solutions for well structured problems. Howell and Burnett (1978) recently developed a taxonomy of tasks 16 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring Problem Type Initial State decision problems Terminal State Transformation Type 1, Resource Specification Problems UnfamllIar Type 11, Goal Specification Problems Type III, Creative ProblemsType IV, Well-Structured Problems Varies Varies Unfamihar Varies Vanes Familiar Unfamiliar Familiar Fig. 1. Types of problem structures (Taylor 1974). and types of events with the intention of assessing cognitive options for processing probabilistic information for each taxonomy element. Uncertain events are classified according to three dichotomies: frequentistic – not frequentistic; known data generator – unknown data generator; process external – internal to the observer. Task characteristics are complexity, setting (e. g. , real life us. laboratory), span of events, and response mode characteristics. For each vent/task combination Howell and Burnett discuss how different cognitive processes may be operating when making probability judgments. For example, in estimating frequentistic events with unknown data generators, availability heuristics may be operative. Brown and Ulvila (1977) present the most comprehensive attempt yet to classify decision problems. Their taxonomy includes well over 100 possible characteristics. Decision problems are defined according to their substance and the decision process involved. Substantive taxonomic characteristics are mainly derived from th e analytic properties of the situation, i. . , amount and type of uncertainty, and amount D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems 71 and types of stakes, types of alternatives. Only a few elements of this part of the taxonomy can be directly related to problem content, i. e. , current vs. contingent decision, operating vs. information act. The taxonomic elements of the decision process refer mainly to the constraints of the decision maker, e. g. , reaction time, available resources. The taxonomy by Brown and Ulvila incorporates most previous problem taxonomies which tried to define decision problems by categories derived from decision analysis.These include taxonomies by von Winterfeldt and Fischer (1975), Miller et al. (1976), and Vlek and Wagenaar (1979). To be useful for problem identification, the above taxonomies should lead an analyst to a class of problems which has characteristics similar to the decision problem under investigation. Unfortunately, the existing probl em taxonomies are ill-suited for this purpose, because they use mainly analytic categories to distinguish problems. Such categories are derivatives of the decision analytic models and concepts, rather than characteristics of real world problems. For example, the analytic categorizations f problems into risky vs. riskless classes is based on the distinction between riskless and risky preference models. Analytic categories create more or less empty classes with little or no correspondence to real problems. For example, none of the above taxonomies allows distinguishing between a typical siting problem and a typical regulation problem in a meaningful way. It appears that substantive rather than analytic characteristics identify real problems. Substantive characteristics are generalized content features of the problems belonging to the respective class. For example, a substantive eature of regulation problems is the involvement of three generic decision makers: the regulator, the regula ted, and the beneficiary of regulation. To become useful for problem identification, taxonomies need to include such substantive problem characteristic& Methods for selecting an overall analytic structure Most taxonomies include some ideas or principles for matching lems with analytic structures or models. MacCrimmon and attempted to match their basic type of decision problems with tive solution strategies, Howell and Burnett speculated on which tive processes may be invoked by typical task/event classes in probTaylor ognicogniproba- 18 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems bility assessment; von Winterfeldt and Fischer identified for each problem category appropriate multiattribute utility models. But in none of these papers explicit matching principles or criteria for the goodness of a match are given. Rather, matches are created on the basis of a priori reasoning about the appropriateness of a strategy, model, or a cognitive process for a particular class of decision problems. Brown and Ulvila (1977) attempted to make this selection process more explicit by creating an analytic taxonomy in correspondence with the problem taxonomy.The analytic taxonomy classifies the main options an analyst may have in structuring and modeling a decision problem. The taxonomy includes factors such as user’s options (amount to be expended on the analysis), input structure (type of uncertainty), elicitation techniques (type of probability elicitation). These categories identify options, both at a general level (optimization, simulation, and Bayesian inference models) and special techniques (e. g. , reference gambles, or Delphi technique). To match problems with analytic approaches Brown and Ulvila created a third taxonomy, called the â€Å"performance measure taxonomy†.This taxonomy evaluates analytic approaches on attributes like â€Å"time and cost measures†, â€Å"quality of the option generation process†, â€Å"quality of communicat ion or implementation†, etc. Different problem classes have different priority profiles on the performance measure categories. Similarly, different analytic approaches have different scoring profiles on the performance measures. The analytic approach chosen should perform well on the priority needs of a particular problem, Brown and Ulvila discuss the ‘goodness of fit’ of several analytic approaches to a number of decision situations in terms of these performance measures.For example, they argue that a contingency type analysis (an element of the analytic taxonomy) is appropriate for decision problems that occur repeatedly and require a fast response (elements of the decision situation taxonomy) because contingency type analysis allows fast calculations (elements of the performance measure taxonomy). Several authors have developed logical selection schemes, which can identify an appropriate analytic approach or model based on selected MacCrimmon (1973), for exampl e, developed a problem features. sequential method for selecting an appropriate approach for multiattrib&e evaluation.The first question to be answered is whether the purpose of the analysis is normative or descriptive. Further questions D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 79 include whether the type of problem has occurred frequently before, if there are multiple decision makers with conflicting preferences, and whether alternatives are available or have to be designed. All questions are of the yes-no type and together create a flow chart for selecting among 19 possible approaches. For example, if the purpose of the analysis is normative, if direct assessments of preferences (e. g. ratings) are valid and reliable, and if the type of problem has frequently occurred before, regression models or ANOVA type approaches would be appropriate. Johnson and Huber (1977) and Kneppreth et al. (1977) discuss a three step procedure for selecting a multiattribute utility assessment approach. In the first step, the characteristics of the multiattribute problem are listed, including discreteness vs. continuity of dimensions, uncertainty vs. no uncertainty, and independence considerations. In the second step the evaluation situation is characterized on the basis of judgments about the task complexity, mount of training required for assessment, face validity required, assessment time, accuracy and flexibility. In the third and final step the profile describing the evaluation problem is compared with a profile characterizing five different generic assessment models or methods. The technique that best matches the situation profile is selected. For example, lottery assessment methods and models would be appropriate if the evaluation problem involves uncertainties, does not require high face validity, and allows for a good amount of training of the assessor. Both the taxonomy riented and the sequential selection methods for matching problems and analysis suffer from c ertain drawbacks. As stated earlier, problem characteristics used in taxonomies typically neglect substantive aspects of the decision problem. Consequently, an analyst may choose an analytic approach based on a match with a spuriously defined problem class. For example, when facing a medical diagnosis problem, an analyst may find that some detailed substantive characteristics of the problem (e. g. , the way doctors process information, the physical format of information, etc. ) suggest a signal detection structure.Yet, as far as I can see, none of the above matching processes would directly lead to such a structure. Advances in formalizing structures Influence diagrams are a recent development in decision analytic structuring (see Miller et al. 1976). Influence diagrams draw a graphical 80 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems picture of the way variables in a decision model influence each other, without superimposing any hierarchical structure. For example, a decision v ariable (price) may ‘influence’ a state variable (demand) and thus ‘influence’ a final state (successful introduction of a new product into market). Influence diagrams have been conceived mainly as an initial pre-structuring tool to create a cognitive map of a decision maker’s or expert’s view of a decision problem. In the present stage influence diagrams are turned into hierarchical structures and analyzed with traditional tools. But research is now underway at SRI International on the use of influence diagrams directly in EV or EU computations. Another generalization of the tree approach is Interpretative Structural Modeling (ISM) developed, for example, in Warfield (1974) and Sage (1977). In interpretative structural modeling, matrix and graph heory notions are used to formally represent a decision problem. First, all elements of the problem are listed and an element by element matrix is constructed. The structure of the relationships betwe en elements is then constructed by filling in the matrix with numerical judgments reflecting the strength of the relationship, or by simply making O-l judgments about the existence/non-existence of a relation. Computer programs can then be used to convert the matrix into a graph or a tree that represents the problem. Influence diagrams, value trees, decision trees, and inference trees can all be thought of as special cases of ISM.For example, in value tree construction, the analyst may begin with a rather arbitrary collection of value relevant aspects, attributes, outcomes, targets and objectives. Using alternative semantic labels for the relationships between these elements (e. g. , ‘similar’, ‘part of’), an element by element matrix can be filled. Finally, the analyst can explore whether a particular relational structure leads to useful goal tree structure. Besides these generalizations of traditional hierarchical structuring tools, several refinements of special structuring techniques have been suggested, particularly for evaluation roblems. Keeney and Raiffa (1976) devoted a whole chapter to the problem of structuring a value tree. They suggest a strategy of constructing a value tree by beginning with general objectives and disaggregating by using a pure explication logic (i. e. , what is meant by this general objective? ). This approach has previously been advocated by Miller (1970) and others. Mannheim and Hall (1967) suggest in addition the possibility of disaggregating general D. van Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 81 objectives according to a means-ends logic (how can this general objective be achieved? ).Other disaggregation logics (problem oriented, process oriented, etc. ) could be analyzed in the ISM context. There are a number of papers that suggest more empirical or synthetic approaches to value tree construction. Of particular interest is a repertory grid technique described by Humphreys and Humphreys (1975) and Humphreys and Wisuda (1979). In this procedure similarity and dissimilarity judgments are used to span the value dimensions of alternatives. Several computer aids have been developed recently to aid decision makers or experts in structuring decision problems. Some of these are discussed in Kelly ( 1978), and Humphreys (1980).These aids typically rely on empty structuring concepts (decison trees, value trees, inference trees, or influence diagrams) and they guide the decision maker/expert in the analytic formulation of his/her problem. Special aids are OPINT for moderately complex problems which can easily be formulated into a decision tree or matrix structure, the decision triangle aid for sequential decision problems with a focus on changing probabilities, and EVAL for multiattribute utility problems (Kelly 1978). In addition to these structuring and assessment aids, there are now computerized aids under development xploiting the idea of influence diagrams and fuzzy set theory . Influence diagrams, ISM, and computer aids are indicative of a trend in structuring research and perhaps in decision analysis as a whole. This trend turns the fundamentally empty structures of decision trees, goal trees, and inference trees into more operational, computerized elicitation tools, without adding problem substance. There are clear advantages to such an approach: a wide range of applicability, flexibility, user involvement, speed, limited training, and feedback, to name only a few. It also reduces the demands on the decision analyst’s time.There is, of course, the other extreme, the prestructured, precanned problem specific version of decision analysis applicable to essentially identical situations. A military example is Decisions and Designs Inc. % SURVAV model (Kelly 1978) which applies to routing decisions for ships to avoid detections by satellites. Such a structure and model can routinely be implemented with almost no additional training. In turn it gives u p generalizability. Neither extreme is totally satisfactory. Empty general structures must consider each problem from scratch. Substantive specific struc- 82 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring ecision problems tures have limited generalizability. The middleground of problem driven but still generalizable structures and models needs to be filled. Problem taxonomies may help here by identifying generic classes of problems. But as was discussed earlier, existing taxonomies are ill equipped for this task since they neglect substantive problem features. The question of filling in the middleground between ‘too general’ structures and ‘too specific’ structures thus becomes a question of searching for generalizable content features of problems that identify generic classes of decisions.These generic classes can then be modelled and structured by â€Å"prototypical decision analytic structures† which are specific enough to match the generalizable problem feature s and general enough to transfer easily to other problems of the same class. At the present stage of research this search process will necessarily be inductive because too little is known about problem substance to develop a problem driven taxonomy and matching analytic structures. An inductive research strategy may attempt to crystallize the generalizable features of a specific application, . or compare a number of similar applications (e. . , with siting problems), or simply use a phenomenological approach to delineate problem classes in a specific application area (e. g. , regulation). In the following two sections some possibilities for developing prototypical decision analytic structures will be discussed. An example of developing a prototypical structure The following example describes the structuring process in the development of a decision aiding system for environmental standard setting and regulation. The work was performed as part of IIASA’s (see fn. 2) standard se tting project (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978), which had oth descriptive and normative intentions (how do regulators presently set standards? how can analytic models help in the standard setting process? ). Because of this wide approach of the standard setting project, the research group was not forced to produce workable models for specific decision problems quickly. Consequently, its members could afford and were encouraged to spend a substantial amount of time on structuring. Inputs into the structuring process were: – retrospective case studies of specific mental protection agencies; standard processes of environ- national Railway Corporation energylevelmeasure 3 measurefor aeroplanenoise 1 Japanese dB’ ‘SO†, AT SOURCE RULES ROUTING USE SCHEMES SCHEMES LAND Fig. 2. Regulatory alternatives for Shinkansen noise pollution. IMPLEMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT /I ALTERNATIVE OF HOUSE IN HOUSE IN FRONT lMldB(A) WCPNLl MEAS†6iiA~â€Å"> 30 †“ d&i) MEASURED LEO’ EQUIP- TION FICA- SPECI- MENT SPE:D CONTROL RES+RlCT TIMES OPERATION 84 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems – previous models suggested for standard setting; – field studies of two ongoing standard setting processes (oil pollution and noise standards).In addition, the structuring process benefited much from continuing discussions with leading members of environmental agencies in the United Kingdom, Norway, Japan and the United States. Although the structuring effort was geared towards decision analysis, substantial inputs were given by an environmental economist (D. Fischer), an environmental modeller (S. Ikeda), a game theorist (E. Hopfinger), and two physicists (W. Hafele and R. Avenhaus), all members of IIASA’s standard setting research team. The overall question was: how can standard setting problems best be formulated nto a decision analytic format and model such that the model is specific enough to capture the ma in features of a particular standard setting problem and, at the same time, general enough to apply to a variety of such problems? In other words, what is a prototypical decision analytic structure for standard setting? Since the regulator or regulatory agency was presumed to be the main client of such models, the initial structuring focussed on regulatory alternatives and objectives. In one attempt a wide but shallow alternative tree was conceived which included a variety of regulatory ptions ranging from emission standards, land use schemes, to direct interventions. An example for noise pollution standards is presented in fig, 2. Coupled with an appropriate tree of regulatory objectives, a decision analysis could conceivably be performed by evaluating each alternative with a simple MAU procedure. A possible value tree is presented in fig. 3 for the same noise pollution problem. This simple traditional structure was rejected since regulators seldom have to evaluate such a wide rang e of alternatives and because it does not capture the interaction between the regulators and the regulated.Also, regulators are much concerned about monitoring and implementation of standards, an aspect which a simple MAU structure does not address. The second structure was a narrow but deep decision tree, exemplified in fig. 4 for an oil pollution problem. In addition to the regulator’s alternatives, this tree includes responses of the industry to standards, possible detection of standards violations, and subsequent sanctions. This structure was geared at fine tuning the regulators’ definitions of D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 85 of hospitals, schools, retwement homes MINIMIZE f residential life DISTURBANCE other / EEggF M,NIM,zE HEALTH Hearing EFFECTS < PsychologIcal Synergetic (aggravation of existing illness) Investment for pollution equipment MINIMIZE COST ~—–< Operation of pollution eqwpment RAILWAY CORP. OBJECTIVES Speed MAXIMIZ E SERVICE -< Aeliablllty ClXlllOrt wth mtemational regulation CONSISTENCY OF REGULATION with other national â€Å"cise standards (car, mr. other trams) POLITICAL OBJECTIVES -/ Enwonmental policy AGREEMENT POLICY WITH GOVERNMENT Transportation policy t Ewnomtc growih policy Fig. 3. Regulatory objectives for noise pollution control. he standard level (maximum emission, etc. ) and monitoring and sanction schemes, and to assessing environmental impacts. The structure is specific in terms of the regulatory alternatives. But by considering industry responses as random events, and by leaving out responses of environmental groups, it fails to address a major concern of regulatory decision making. The third structure was a three decision maker model, in which the regulator, the industry/developer and the environmentalists/impactees are represented by separate decision analytic models (see von Winterfeldt 1978).A signal detection type model links the regulator’s decision through poss ible detections of violations and sanction schemes to the the industry model. An event tree of pollution generating events and effects links the developer’s decisions to the impactee model (see fig. 5). The model can be run as follows: the regulator’s alternatives are left 86 EPA average UK aver,, UK maximum Norway average DEFINITIONS OF OIL EMISSION STANDARDS parts per million ofoil No pollution – Grawty Separator c&ugated Plate Inter- equipment Gas Flotation Filters ceptrr n ob STANDARD LEVEL in watt r ofoil POLLUTION EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE o00 patis per milhon in water n First vidabon of No udat#on of standard occurs at tulle DETECTION STATES standard dunng all opemons n t POLLUTION EQUIPMENT DECISION BY THE OIL INDUSTRY PENALTY No pdlution equipment Gravity separator Gas Flotatux corrugated Plate bltw- Pais Filters EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE per million n Second wdation POLLUTION EQUIPMENT DECISION BY THE OIL INDUSTRY No more vidations DETECTION STATES Find eflect s~ on environment (pdlution levels) FINAL EFFECTS – industry (cost) – regulatlx (political) Fig. 4. Segment of a decision tree for setting oil pollution standards. A standard is usually defined by the number of samples to be taken, how many samples form an average, and how many exemptions from a violation are allowed. For example, the EPA average definition is as follows: four samples are to be taken daily, the average of the four samples may not exceed the standard level (e. g. , 50 ppm) more than twice during any consecutive 30 day period. 87 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATORY 1 DECISION MODEL I U R (0 1 DETECTION OF REGULATION VIOLATION DEVELOPER – SANCTIONS POLLUTION GENERATING EVENTS I IMPACTEE DECISION MODELPOLLUTION EFFECTS Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the regulator-developer-impactee model. 1: variable standard of the regulator d(r): expected utility maximizing treatment decision of the developer a[d(r)]: expected utility maximizing decision of the impactees variable. The developer’s response is optimized in terms of minimizing expected investment, operation, and detection costs or maximizing equivalent expected utilities. Finally, the impactees are assumed to maximize their expected utility conditional on the regulator’s and the developer’s decision. At this point the model stops.The structure only provides for a Pareto optimality analysis of the three expected utilities accruing to the generic decision units. This model allows some detailed analyses of the probabilities and value aspects of the standard setting problem, and it proved feasible in a pilot application to chronic oil discharge standards (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978). Regulators who were presented with this model, con- 88 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATOR’S CHOICE Fig. 6. Game theoretic structure of the regulation I problem. sidered it meaningful, and it offered several insights into the standard setting problematique.Yet, there was a feeling among analysts and regulators that the static character of the model and the lack of feedback loops required improvement. The final structure considered was a game theoretic extension of the three decision maker model. The structure of the game theoretic model is presented in fig. 6. In this model the standard setting process in explicitly assumed to be dynamic, and all feedbacks are considered. In addition, transitions from one stage to another are probabilistic. The model was applied in a seven stage version in a pilot study of noise standard setting for rapid trains (Hapfinger and von Winterfeldt 1978).The game theoretic model overcomes the criticisms of the static decision analytic model, but in turn it gives up the possibility for fine tuning and detailed modeling of trade-offs and probabilities. Considering such aspects in detail would have made the running of the model impossible. Therefore, relatively arbitrar y (linear) utility functions and simple structures of transition probabilities have to be assumed. Although the appropriateness of the different structures was not explicitly addressed in this study, two main criteria come to mind when judging structures: representativeness of the problem and manageability for further analysis.Each of these criteria can be further broken down. For example, representativeness includes judgments about the adequacy of the structural detail, and coverage of important problem aspects. The overall conclusions of many discussion with regulators, analysts, D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 89 industry representatives, and the results of the pilot applications led us to accept the third structure as a prototypical decision analytic structure for relatively routine emission standard setting problems. The model is presently considered for further applications in emission tandard setting and an extension to safety standards will be explored. Tow ards a kit of prototypical decision analytical structures Not every decision analysis can afford to be as broad and time consuming as the previous study. Decision analysis usually has a much more specific orientation towards producing a decision rather than developing a generic structure. Still I think that it would be helpful if analysts were to make an effort in addressing the question of generalizability when modeling a specific problem, and in extracting those features of the problem and the model that are transferable. Such an inductive pproach could be coupled with more research oriented efforts and with examinations of similarities among past applications. Such an approach may eventually fill the middleground between too specific and too general models and structures. But rather than filling this middleground with analytically specific but substantively empty structures and models, it would be filled with prototypical structures and models such as the above regulation model, more refined signal detection models, siting models, etc. In the following, four typical classes of decision problems (siting, contingency planning, budget allocation, and regulation) are examined nd requirements for prototypical structures for these problems are discussed. Facility siting clearly is a typical decision problem. Keeney and other decision analysts have investigated this problem in much detail and in a variety of contexts (see the examples in Keeney and Raiffa 1976). A typical aspect of such siting problems is sequential screening from candidate areas to possible sites, to a preferred set, to final site specific evaluations. Another aspect is the multiobjective nature with emphasis on generic classes of objectives: investment and operating cost, economic benefits, environmental impacts, social impacts, and political onsiderations. Also, the process of organizing, collecting, and evaluating information is similar in many siting decisions. Thus, it should be possible to develop a prototypical structure for facility siting decisions, 90 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems simply by assembling the generalizable features of past applications [ 31. Contingency planning is another recurring and typical problem. Decision and Design Inc. addressed this problem in the military context, but it also applies to planning for actions in the case of disasters such as Liquid Natural Gas plant explosions or blowouts from oil platforms.Substantive aspects that are characteristic of contingency planning are: strong central control of executive organs, numerous decisions have to be made simultaneously, major events can drastically change the focus of the problem, no cost or low cost information comes in rapidly, and organizational problems may impede information flows and actions. Although, at first glance, decision trees seem to be a natural model for contingency planning, a prototypical decision model would require modifying a strictly sequential appr oach to accommodate these aspects.For example, the model should be flexible enough to allow for the ‘unforeseeable’ (rapid capacity to change the model structure), it should have rapid information updating facilities without overstressing the value of information (since most information is free), and it should attend to fine tuning of simultaneous actions and information interlinkages. Budget allocation to competing programs is another typical problem. In many such problems different programs attempt to pursue similar objectives, and program mix and balance has to be considered besides the direct benefits of single programs.Another characteristic of budgeting decisions is the continuous nature of the decision variable and the constraint of the total budget. MAU looks like a natural structure for budget allocation decision since it can handle the program evaluation aspect (see Edwards et al. 1976). But neither the balance issue nor the constrained and continuous characte ristics of the budget are appropriately adressed by MAU. A prototypical decision analytic structure would model an evaluation of the budget apportionment, or the mix of programs funded at particular levels.Such a structure would perhaps exploit dependencies or independencies among programs much like independence assumption for preferences. Regulation covers a class of decision problems with a number of recurrent themes: three generic groups involved (regulators, regulated, [,3] I believe that. Keeney’s forthcoming book on siting energy facilities is a major step in that direction. Of. course, it could also be a step in the opposite direction. Or in no direction at all (see also first asterisked footnote at the beginning of the article). D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 91 beneficiaries of regulation), importance f monitoring and sanction schemes, usually opposing objectives of the regulated and the benefrciaries of regulation, and typically highly political o bjectives of the regulator. In the previous section, the more specific regulation problem of standard setting was discussed, and a prototypical decision analytic structure was suggested. A decision analytic structure for regulation in general can build on the main features of the standard setting model. This list could be extended to include private investment decisions, product mix selection, resource development, diagnostic problems, etc. But the four examples hopefully re sufficient to demonstrate how prototypical decision analytic structuring can be approached in general. In my opinion, such an approach to structuring could be at least as useful for the implementation of decision analysis as computerization of decision models. Besides the technical advantages of trahsferability, prototypical decision analytic structures would serve to show that decision analysts are truly concerned about problems. Today decision analysis books have chapters such as ‘simple decisions under uncertainty’ and ‘multiattribute evaluation problems’. I am looking forward to chapters such as ‘siting industrial acilities’, ‘pollution control management’, and ‘contingency planning’. References Brown, R. V. and J. W. Ulvila, 1977. Selecting analytic approaches for decision situations. (Revised edition. ) Vol. I: Overview of the methodology. Technical report no. TR77-7-25, Decisions and Designs, Inc. , McLean, VA. Brown, R. V. , A. S. Kahr and C. Peterson, 1974. Decision analysis for the manager. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Edwards, W. , M. Guttentag and K. Snapper, 1976. A decision-theoretic approach to evaluation research. In: E. L. Streuning and M. Guttentag (eds. ), Handbook of evaluation research, I. London: Sage.Fischer, D. W. and D. von Winterfeldt, 1978. Setting standards for chronic oil discharges in the North Sea. Journal of Environmental Management 7, 177-199. Gardiner, P. C. and A. Ford, in press. A merger of simulation and evaluation for applied policy research in social systems. In: K. Snapper (ed. ), Practical evaluation: case studies in simplifying complex decision problems. Washington, DC: Information Resource Press. Hogarth, R. M. , C. Michaud and J. -L. Mery, 1980. Decision behavior in urban development: a methodological approach and substantive considerations. Acta Psychologica 45, 95-117. Hiipfmger, E. and R. Avenhaus, 1978.A game theoretic framework for . dynamic standard setting procedures. IIASA-RM-78. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. 92 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems Hopfinger, E. and D. von Winterfeldt, 1979. A dynamic model for setting railway noise standards. In: 0. Moeschlin and D. Pallaschke (eds. ), Game theory and related topics. Amsterdam: North-Holland. pp. 59-69. Howell, W. C. and S. A. Burnett, 1978. Uncertainty measurement: a cognitrve taxonomy. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 22 ,45-68. Humphreys, P. C. , 1980. Decision aids: aiding decisions. In: L.Sjoberg, T. Tyszka and J. A. Wise (eds), Decision analyses and decision processes, 1. Lund: Doxa (in press). Humphreys, P. C. and A. R. Humphreys, 1975. An investigation of subjective preference orderings for multiattributed alternatives. In: D. Wendt and C. Vlek (eds. ), Utility, probability, and human decision making. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, pp. 119-133. Humphreys, P. C. and A. Wisudha, 1979. MAUD – an interactive computer program for the structuring, decomposition and recomposition of preferences between multiattributed alternatives. Technical report 79-2, Decision Analysis Unit, Brunel University, Uxbridge, England.Johnson, E. M. and G. P. Huber, 1977. The technology of utility assessment. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, vol. SMCJ, 5. Keeney, R. L. , in press. Siting of energy facilities. New York: Academic Press. Keeney, R. L. and H. Raiffa, 1976. Decisions with multiple objec tives: preferences and value tradeoffs. New York: Wiley. Kelly, III, C. W. , 1978. Decision aids: engineering science and clinical art. Technical Report, Decisions and Designs, Inc. , McLean, VA. Kelly, C. and S. Barclay, 1973. A general Bayesian model for hierarchical inference. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 10, 388-403.Kneppreth, N. P. , D. H. Hoessel, D. H. Gustafson, and E. M. Johnson, 1977. A strategy for selecting a worth assessment technique. Technical paper 280, U. S. Army Research Institute for Behavioral and Social Sciences, Arlington, VA. MacCrimmon, K. R. , 1973. An overview of multiple criteria decision making. In: J. L. Cochrane and M. Zeleney (eds. ), Multiple criteria decision making. Columbia, SC: The University of South Carolina Press. pp. 18-44. MacCrimmon, K. R. and R. N. Taylor, 1975. Problem solving and decision making. In: M. C. Dunnette (ed. ), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. New York: Rand McNally.Mannheim, M. L. and F. Hall, 1967. Abstract representation of goals: a method for making decisions in complex problems. In: Transportation, a service. Proceedings of the Sesquicentennial Forum, New York Academy of Sciences – American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. Miller, J. R. , 1970. Professional decision making: a procedure for evaluating complex alternatives. New York: Praeger. Miller, AC. , M. W. Merkhofer, R. A. Howard, J. E. Matheson and T. R. Rice, 1976. Development of automated aids for decision analysis. Technical report, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA. Raiffa, H. , 1968. Decision analysis.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Sage, A. , 1977. Methodology for large scale systems. New York: McGraw-Hill. Taylor, R. C. , 1974. Nature of problem ill-structuredness: implications for problem formulation and solution. Decision Sciences 5,632-643. Vlek, C. and W. A. Wagenaar, 1979. Judgment and decision under uncertainty. In: J. A. Michon, E. G. Eijkman and L. F. W. DeKlerk (eds. ), Handbook of psychonomics, II. Amsterdam: North-Holland. pp. 253-345. Warfield, J. , 1974. Structuring complex systems. Batelle Memorial Institute Monograph, no. 4. Winterfeldt, D. von, 1978. A decision aiding system for improving the environmental standardD. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 93 setting process. In: K. Chikocki and A. Straszak (eds. ), Systems analysis applications to complex programs. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 119-124. Winterfeldt, D. von and D. W. Fischer, 1975. Multiattribute utility: models and scaling procedures. In: D. Wendt and C. Vlek (eds. ), Utility, probability, and human decision making. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel. pp. 47-86. Winterfeldt, D. von, R. Avenhaus, W. Htiele and E. Hopfmger, 1978. Procedures for the establishment of standards. IIASA-AR-78-A, B, C. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria.

The Effects of Globalization and Economic Expansion on Russia Research Paper

The Effects of Globalization and Economic Expansion on Russia - Research Paper Example As a result of this, Russia obtained international acknowledgement as the sovereign successor to the Soviet Union. Russia was honored with a permanent seat to represent the Soviet Union in the United Nations Security Council, and various positions in regional and international organizations. 7 Russia sits on both Europe and Asia. However, it is neither Asian nor European in its standpoint and culture. Russia has remained the largest country in the world, even after the division of the Soviet Union in 1991. Ziegler points out that the nation â€Å"occupies about 6.6 million square miles of territory, and is nearly twice the size of the United States. From East to West, the country stretches over 5,000 miles and occupies 11 time zones† (1). After the breakup of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Russia abandoned much of its access to the Black sea. As a result of this fragmentation, Russia was left smaller, landlocked, and geographically isolated. The former Soviet Union w as the third-largest nation in the world with a population of approximately two hundred and ninety million people. Despite the fact that Russia is physically the largest nation in the world, its population has been declining over the years. In this regard, it becomes the ninth largest nation in the world following â€Å"China, India, the United States, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nigeria† (Ziegler 2) in terms of population. Over eighty percent of the population of Russia lives on the western side of the nation, while the rest of the population lives in Siberia and Russia’s Far East. 8 Western Russia is populated with majority of Russia’s roads, railways, and air routes. Ziegler asserts that â€Å"Siberia is extremely rich in natural resources-oil, natural gas, gold, diamonds, furs, and timber-but much of its wealth is virtually inaccessible or very costly to extract due to the country’s weak transportation system† (2). Today, Russi a is more ethnically united compared to the former Soviet Union and imperial Russia. This is because before the downfall of the Soviet Union, it had only fifty one percent ethnic Russians. However, the Russian Federation today comprises of eighty two percent ethnic Russians. Tatars are the second largest ethnic group in the Russian Federation; the group comes from Mongols descendants, who controlled the lands in Russia in the thirteenth century. Three percent of Russia’s population comprises of the Ukrainians, who are Russian’s Slavic cousins. Twelve percent of the population is made up of Jews, Germans, Belarusians, Turkic people, Caucasians, and small tribes form Siberia. The ethnic groups in Russia generally relate very well, but from time to time, outbursts of violence occur against non-Russians. 9 According to Ziegler â€Å"Russia as a whole lies much further north than the United States; in this sense it is more comparable to Canada† (2). Russia has a lot of fertile agricultural land, but its location in the north results in cold weather and very short growing seasons. As a result of this, most crops do not fare well on Russian soil. When it was part of the Soviet Union, Russia had great cropland. This was however lost when the Soviet Union was dissolved, great cropland located in Kazakhstan and Ukraine was lost. Crops grown in Russia include rye, winter wheat, potatoes and sugar

Database Design Concepts British Insurance Company Assignment

Database Design Concepts British Insurance Company - Assignment Example The second screenshot illustrates the working of the function "Add new customer". When the system admin will click on the "Add new customer", he will be redirected to this page. The page will inquire about the following details. System Admin can also upload the picture of a customer. Once all the details have been provided, the admin will click on the "save" button in order to record the details in the database. The third screenshot illustrates the working of the Product's Section. When the system administrator will click on the "Products" button located at the in the main panel, he will be redirected to the Product's Section. Here, the admin will be able to add new Products, view existing Products, make a web search to update the product's details and delete a Product. An admin will also be able to perform a Product related search in the search box provided at the bottom of the page. When the admin will click on any of the buttons, he will be redirected to the related page.  Ã‚   Screenshot 2: This Screenshot shows the working of the Product module. A manager or admin of the system can add the new product, view existing products, delete a product or make a web search to gather details for the product through the buttons on the page. A manager or admin can also make a search for any query regarding the product to make a quick search. Screenshot 3 When the admin clicks on the button "Add new customer", he will be redirected to the "Add new customer" page. The admin has to enter the mentioned details and click on the "Save" button in order to create a new customer account. Task 2A: Data Dictionary: Table Field Type Field Size Field Description Customer Text Up to 500 characters The details of the customers will be stored in the Customer table Product Memo Up To 64,000 characters The details of the customers will be stored in the Customer table Quotation Text Up to 1000 characters The quotations made by the advisors will be saved in the quotations table Advisor T ext Up to 255 characters Names of the advisors will be saved in the advisor table Task 2B: The tool used to create the ER diagram is Microsoft Visio. ER Diagram: 5 entities have been considered in the ER diagram. The product entity contains the following attributes; Description, Product No., and Name. The Database Admin entity contains the following attribute; ID Number. The Customer entity contains the following attributes; Name, reg no, age, address, contract number, date and advisor. The quotation entity contains the following attributes; reg no, client name, advisor name, estimate, and date. Similarly, the web search entity will make searches for a product from the internet in order to update the details of a product.