Historical look at corrections systems Essay Example for Free

Historical look at corrections systems Essay Criminal justice refers to the system used by a government to maintain social control, prevent crime, enforce laws and administer justice. Law enforcement (police), the courts and corrections (prisons) are the primary agencies charged with these responsibilities. The discussion contained in this paper is on the corrections as a division in the criminal justice system. World over, the police are invloved in law enforcement. Those who break the law, regarded as offenders, are charged in a court of law and if found guilty are passed over to the corrections. Corrections, according to (The Wikipedia encyclopedia, n. d. ) Rretrieved March 14, 2007, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Prison database, refer to one of the components of the criminal justice system that serves to punish and in many instances rehabilitate criminal offenders. Sentences given to offenders range from probation to serving time in prison, or community corrections program, home confinement, and electronic monitoring. Financial penalties may include fines, forfeiture, and restitution. World over, prisons remain the primary type of institution for housing offenders. Prison, penitentiary, or correctional facility, Wakipedia encyclopedia says, is a place in which individuals are physically confined or interned, and usually deprived of a range of personal freedoms. The prison, says (The Howard League for Penal Reform n. d. ) History of Prison: Retrieved March 14, 2007, from http://www. howardleague. org/ database, is â€Å"just one of a number of sanctions available to the courts to deal with those who commit criminal offences. † A historical look at corrections systems: In the 16th and 17 century, according to The Howard League for Penal Reform, sanctions for criminal behaviour tended to be public events which were designed to shame the person and deter others; these included the ducking stool, the pillory, whipping, branding and the stocks. At the time the sentence for many other offences was death. Prison tended to be a place where people were held before their trial or while awaiting punishment. Men and women, boys and girls, debtors and murderers were all held together in local prisons. It was very rarely used as a punishment in its own right. The correction system, by all standards was quite brutal as after one being convicted, he or she was either subjected to instant punishment such as whipping or even death. Howard League of Penal Reform says that â€Å"Evidence suggests that the prisons of this period were badly maintained and often controlled by negligent prison warders. Many people died of diseases like gaol fever, which was a form of typhus. † Houses of correction were originally part of the machinery of the Poor Law, intended to instil habits of industry through prison labour. Most of those held in them were petty offenders, vagrants and the disorderly local poor. By the end of the 17th century they were absorbed into the prison system under the control of the local Justices of the Peace. The league points out that although the 18th century has been characterised as the era of the Bloody Code there was growing opposition to the death penalty for all but the most serious crimes. Such severe punishment was counter-productive, as jurors were refusing to find thieves guilty of offences, which would lead to their execution. At this time many jailers were unpaid and they earned extra money by charging prisoners for food, drink, fuel, beds and blankets. Some jailers would put shackles and manacles on prisoners and would charge fees for them to be removed. Many prisoners were bullied by jailers and other prisoners, and would often have to pay a form of protection money. By the mid-18th century imprisonment, with hard labour, was beginning to be seen as a suitable sanction for petty offenders. â€Å"Transportation was a much-used method for disposing of convicted people. Convicts were shipped to the British colonies like America (until the end of the American War of Independence in 1776), Australia, and Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania),† writes the league. But transportation was curtailed at the end of the 18th century. Other sanctions therefore had to be found. The two prominent alternatives were hard labour or incarceration. In 1777, there were condemnations of the prison system as disorganised, barbaric and filthy with calls for reforms including the installation of paid staff, outside inspection, a proper diet and other necessities for prisoners. Penal reformers also ensured the separation of men and women and that sanitation was improved. Various Acts were also put in place that gave specifications of the measurements for prison cells. In the 19th centruary capital punishment begun being regarded as an inappropriate sanction for many crimes. The shaming sanctions, like the stocks, were regarded as outdated. The 1800s saw the introduction of new systems and a tightening of the prison regime. The Silent and Separate Systems were used either to keep a regime of silence or to keep prisoners in solitary confinement. The idea being prisoners could not infect each other with criminal ways. These methods were soon criticised with people citing the high incidences of insanity amongst prisoners. Improvements were made in 1815 when an Act was passed to prevent jailers from charging prisoners. The state now paid jailers, while magistrates were given the responsibility of inspecting the jails. By mid-century, imprisonment had replaced capital punishment for most serious offences except for that of murder. Ideas relating to penal reform with the rehabilitation of offenders were becoming increasingly popular. The 19th century saw the birth of the state prison. † This is the period, which also saw prisons being controlled centrally. At this time prison was seen primarily as a means to deter offending. This was a movement away form the reforming ideals of the past. By 1877 all prison staff were salaried and commissioners stressed that staff would be selected on merit alone. In late 1890s, many governments put in place Acts that saw the abolition of hard labour, and established the idea that prison labour should be productive, not least for the prisoners, who should be able to earn their livelihood on release. In the 20th centruary, the development of the prison system gained momentum. In 1919 prison warders were renamed prison officers. Separate confinement of prisoners was abolished in 1922 and soon over 400 voluntary teachers started work in prisons. Pollock M. Joyceline (Google Book) Prisons Today and Tommorrow , Jones and Bartlett Publishers, (pg 318) says that beginning in the 1960s, mere confinement in prison was no longer viewed as sufficient to correct deviant behavior. Rehabilitation programes (vocational training, education, counceling, and psychotherapy, work release, furloughs and self improvement activities) were introduced inot prisons that had previously custody as the sole organizational goal. Fundamental to this emphasis on rehabilitation was an expectation that correctional officers should move beyond the comfortable, clearly defined security role and function in the more ambigious role of the highly qualified human service-oriented professional capable of assisting in rehabilitation of the offender, (Pollock M). Howard League of Penal Reform says that the 1990s have also seen the introduction of prisons which are designed, financed, built and run by private companies. Supporters of privatization argue that it will lead to cheaper, more innovative prisons, with critics arguing that private prisons are flawed both in principle and in practice. Today, correction systems, in many nations, adhere to the fundamental human rights. Prisons today are more civilised in regime and conditions. Prison officers are involved in administering rewards to prisoners for good behaviour as well as overseeing better prison facilities such as gymnasiums, prison shops, health care and training. In England and Wales running water and toilets are now installed in 98 percent of prison cells. Education, work and programmes to tackle drug addiction, offending behaviour and bullying are now commonplace. Certainly conditions have changed for the better, but these changes should not be confused or considered to be making prisons easy, more tolerable perhaps. Prison is about taking a persons liberty away, doing so is the real punishment.

Cultural Anthropology Article Comparison :: Anthropology Culture Essays

Introduction: Cultural Anthropology is a term that is in everyday lives and topics. When one thinks of anthropology they think of the study of old remnants commonly referred to as archaeology. This, however, is not the only form of anthropology. There are four types of anthropology and they are archaeology, biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. However, Cultural anthropologists are every where and study people of all walks of life. One can find a topic and find some type of study that an anthropologist has conducted on the matter. The following are five articles that explain how anthropologists are every where. Section: Culture and Fieldwork Chapter: Corporate Anthropologists, page 24 Summary of Article: The article talked about how anthropologists play an important role in the corporate environment. Anthropologists have been working with businesses since the 1930?s, however in the 1980?s this field experienced significant growth. This was due to the ?globalization of business activity and the increased awareness of the importance of culture for business,? (Laabs 24). Cultural anthropology is the study of existing people and corporations find this information useful in trying to understand human behavior within their own organization. ?Business anthropologists have been studying the corporate world for years, on such varied topics as how to encourage more creativity or how best to integrate multicultural learning techniques into an organization?s training program,? (Laabs 25). Most anthropologists who work in the corporate environment do not use the title of anthropologist. There are currently over 200 anthropologists working in this field. The article then gave an account of one ant hropologist?s experience in the corporate environment. The article concludes by saying what corporations think of the value that anthropologists add to the companies and that the role will continue to grow. Anthropologist?s Experience: The anthropologist that contributed to this article was Lorna M. McDougall. She works at Arthur Andersen?s Center for Professional Education, which is located in St. Charles, Illinois. McDougall is ?studying why people from some cultures learn best from lectures, although others learn best through interactive learning,? (Laabs 25). McDougall has played a large part in developing Arthur Andersen?s Business English Language Immersion Training (ELIT) program. This program builds a language skill that allows for communication between two parties where English may be a second language. This program also provides an awareness of each culture?s business ethics. ?The results of her work have helped instructors, who train Andersen consultants working in 66 countries, be better teachers,?

Corporal of Marines Essay

Corporal of Marines BY Jkid43 What It Means To Be a Corporal of Marines A Corporal of United States Marine Corps had duty and responsibility that they carry out and sever on a day to day base. A Corporal is the lowest as a Noncommissioned Officer in the Marines Corps. A Corporal helps establish good order and discipline for their Marines. Corporals are held accounted for their and their Marines action. As Corporal of Marines they lead their Marines with firmness, fairness, and dignity. Corporals should have confidence, communicate, and good decision making. Corporal makes timely decision not only in combat, but in garrison oo. A Corporal is responsible for their self, along for their Marines. As Corporals their actions and decisions reflects the mission and welfare of their Marines. As NCO, Corporals must accept the responsible of their leadership roles. Corporals as leaders must understand his roles and Marines. For Corporal they must know their Marines comparability, weakness, and effeteness. Corporal is also responsible for their Marines actions. As NCO, Corporals hold accountable for the action their Marines do good or bad. Corporals serve as mentors for theirs Marines and should know their Marines. Which allow Corporal to make decisions base on their Marines abilities. Corporals also are responsible for the well-being and welfare of their Marines. Corporals should insure that their Marine is taken care on and off duty. To ensure if a Marine have an issue that they take the necessary action to ensure marine problem is resolve. Corporals needs to ensure that their Marines have necessary things need for accomplish the mission that their tasks with. Corporals are also responsible for the development and mentors for their Marines. Corporals should ensure that their Marines are challenged and motivated to the best of ability. A Corporal duty as a NCO is to enforce the rules and regulations on a daily base in the Uniform Code of Military Justice UCMJ. Corporals must understand, follows, and enforce the IJCMJ for their Marines. Corporal have a wide range of Jobs among the very wide range of thing Marines do, but their essential duty is to supervise their work and maintain discipline for their Marines. Corporal must ensure that they understand any tasks giving to them. Corporal should also ensure that they have the necessary plan and executing to accomplish the mission. Corporal should get feedback from their senior leader for guides and development to ensure they can leads the Marines better. Corporal’s duty is to ensure that their Marine is properly trained for any type of mission given to them. When training the Marines, Corporals should ensure that the Marines have their proper equipment, food, water and mind- set when training. Corporals must understand the safety and well-being of their Marine. Ensure that their Marine is healthy mentality, physically, emotionally, and spiritually. Corporal duty is also establish good communicates with their Marines. Corporals need to ensure that their marine understand and can accomplish any tasks give to them and supervise to the standard set by the Corporals. The Corporal superiors. This includes the health of each Marine, supply requirements and any other need to ensure the Marines are prepared for any situation. Overall Corporals have a lot of responsible and duties that they must carry out. That core values honor, courage and commitment is emplaced in their Marine, and along themselves. Corporals are to set the example for their Marines emulate. Corporals are to hold themselves to a high stand also.

Dry Ice Science Fair Project Ideas

There are a lot of interesting science fair projects you can do using dry ice. Here are some ideas that you can use as-is or can modify to make your own unique science fair project. Dry Ice Projects How can you store dry ice so that it lasts? Caution: Do not place dry ice in a sealed container, since the pressure build-up may cause it to burst.Does dry ice sublimate more quickly in air, water, oil, etc.? Can you explain why?If you put dry ice in water, how cold does the water need to be before the dry ice stops producing fog?Experiment with a dry ice sound lens. Sound travels more slowly in carbon dioxide than it does in air. If you fill a balloon or rubber glove with carbon dioxide by allowing dry ice to sublimate, you can hold the balloon about a foot away from your ear and listen for sounds that normally would appear very faint, such as the ticking of a clock or dropping of a pin. What is the best distance to hold the balloon from your ear? Do both of your ears hear equally well? Be safe! Do not use a balloon that still contains a piece of dry ice or one that is full where it is likely to burst. The popping of a balloon near your ear could cause injury. Just use a balloon or glove that contains a lot of carbon dioxide, but isnt in danger of popping.Can you find a way to harness the power of dry ice sublimation so that it can power a device? A Heros Engine can be made by puncturing opposite sides of a plastic film canister with a tack or pin held by pliers. Tie a loop in a piece of thread and catch the loop between the lid and the container so you can suspend the canister. When you put a piece of dry ice in the canister and close the lid, what happens? What happens if you change the pattern of the holes? What happens if you place the device in water? Not everyone has a film canister available, so you can substitute other containers, but you need to keep in mind your container can burst if too much pressure builds up. Look for containers that have plastic lids that can pop off under pressure.

The Six Minute Walk Distance ( 6 Mwd ) - 847 Words

Galie’s et al. compared the six-minute walk distance (6-MWD) in patients twelve years or older with symptomatic pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) who took placebo versus 4 doses of oral tadalafil with or without bosentan. This multi-center, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized controlled study lasted 16 weeks. The patients were placed into 5 different groups: tadalafil 2.5mg, 10mg, 20mg, 40mg, or placebo once daily, and stratification was based on walking distance of 325m, type of PAH, and bosentan use. Patients were not qualified to participate in this study if they had a 6-mintue walk distance 150m or 450m. Safety was determined by the level of adverse events severity. It was shown that all doses, but 2.5mg, improved 6-MWD at week 16, although, the tadalafil 40mg was the only one that was statistically significant (p0.01). Compared with placebo, tadalafil 40mg had statistical significance of 6-MWD without bosentan therapy at 44m, versus patients with bosentan wi th a 6-MWD of 23m. The WHO functional class was not statistically significant in comparison with placebo because patients with better WHO functional class showed no difference in comparison to people with worse WHO functional class. After the 341 patients completed the 16 week trial, 334 of them accepted participation in another 16 week trial. Their 6-MWD slightly improved from 37m to 38m after 44 weeks, which was shown to be statistically significant (95% CI, 29 to 47). In addition, WHO functionalShow MoreRelatedSecurity Forces51988 Words   |  208 Pages(TECH. TRNG.) STUDY GUIDE (SG) L3ABR3P031 0S1C SECURITY FORCES STUDY GUIDE (SG L3ABR3PO31 OS1C) DESIGNED TO ENHANCE FORMAL CLASSROOM TRAINING AREA INSTRUCTION BLOCK IV TABLE OF CONTENTS UNIT Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7 Unit 8 Unit 9 Unit 10 Unit 11 Unit 12 Unit 13 Unit 14 Unit 15 Unit 16 Acronyms TITLE Defense Concepts Threats and Detection Random Antiterrorism Measures Communications Fire Control Measures Field Considerations Captives, Detainees, and PrisonersRead More1000 Word Essay85965 Words   |  344 Pagesnumber of months necessary to permit completion. (AR 600-85 Mar 2006 / 5-6 / PDF 31) Will Soldiers who are command referred to ASAP be flagged? Yes, IAW AR600-8-2 (Suspension of Favorable Personnel Action (flags)). (AR 600-85 Mar 2006 / 5-7 / PDF 31) What Does ACS stand for? Army Community Service (AR 608-1 Dec 2004) What does the ACS symbol represent? The heart = giving, the cross = help, the gyroscope = stability Page 6 / 389  © Copyright 1999-2012 ArmyStudyGuide.com Version 5.3 (AR 608-1

Islam And The Middle East - 1057 Words

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Molecular Biology of the Cell Cardiovascular System

Question: Discuss about the Molecular Biology of the Cell for Cardiovascular System. Answer: Cardiovascular system consists of different parts like heart, arteries, capillaries, veins, coronary vessels and portal veins. Heart performs function of supplying oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. Superior and inferior vena cava brings deoxygenated blood from lung to the right atrium. This deoxygenated blood is emptied into the right ventricle by passing through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From right ventricle this blood is pumped into the pulmonary artery through pulmonary valve for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. Blood is purified in the lungs and this newly purified and oxygenated blood enters left atrium through pulmonary vein. This blood then passed through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. From left ventricle blood is pumped to the different parts of the body through aortic semilunar valve and aorta which is main artery of the body. Aorta gives many branches called as arteries and these arteries supplies oxygenated blood to the all other body parts. Wall of aorta is elastic and this aid in maintaining blood pressure through entire human body. Aorta gives rise to arteries of larger size at its origin and its size goes on decreasing at the end. These arteries further become narrower into the arterioles which are small diameter blood vessel and these arterioles has muscular wall. These arterioles further branched into the capillaries and these capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the human body with one cell layer thickness. Diameter of these capillaries is around 5 10 m. These capillaries are the connecting link between arterioles and venules. These capillaries facilitate the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, nutrients and waste matter between blood and body tissues. Individual capillaries do not carry out this function; however network of capillaries those are supplying to the different tissues and organs perform this function of transport. Venules are the small blood vessel which supplies deoxygenated blood from the capillaries to the veins. Venules have the diameter in the range form 7-50 m. Walls of venules comprised of three layers such as inner endothelium, middle layer of muscle and el astic tissue and outer fibrous connective tissue. Many venules combine to form veins. These veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body tissues to the heart and pulmonary and umbilical veins are exception for this, as these veins carry oxygenated blood to the heart. Veins are also called as capacitance vessels because around 60 % blood volume is contained in the veins. Adult human body has about four to five liters of blood. Blood is a liquid connective tissue and performs the function of transport of nutrients, waste matter and gases and helps in maintaining homeostasis of the body. Blood is comprised of red blood cells, white blood cell, platelets and liquid plasma. Red blood cells are biconcave in shape and it performs the function of transport of oxygen in the blood. White blood cells functions as bodys immune system. Part 2. Respiratory system component Structure Function Trachea Is a cartilaginous tube, In Adult human inner diameter of trachea is about has 25 millimetres and a length is approximately 10 to 16 centimetres, trachea contains about 15-20 C-shaped tracheal hyaline cartilages. Trachea performs the function of transporting the air which person breaths in through nose to the lungs. Trachea also performs function of preventing entry of microbes and harmful substances into the lungs. Bronchus Trachea divides into right bronchus and left bronchus. In adult human, right bronchus is 2.5 cm long and left bronchus is 5 cm long Alveolar ducts and alveoli of bronchus contain squamous epithelium and it permits exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs and blood in the blood vessels which spreads across the alveolar ducts and alveoli. Bronchiole Bronchi divide further into bronchioles. Bronchioles are approximately less than 1 mm in diameter and its wall consist of ciliated cuboidal epithelium and a layer of smooth muscle. Bronchioles carry oxygen from nose to the alveoli or air sacs in the lungs and stabilize ventilation. Constricting and expanding property of smooth muscular walls of the bronchioles help to control airflow and stop irritants from entering in the lungs. Lungs Human has right lung and left lung. Total weight of lung is approximately 1.3 kg. Lungs are located in the chest region in between rib cages. Right lung is divided in to three parts like upper, m idle and lower lobe. Horizontal fissure separates upper lobe form the middle lobe. Oblique fissure separates middle and upper lobe. Oblique fissure divides left lung into upper and lower lobe. Lung performs function of breathing in which air enters and leaves the lung. In respiration, oxygen is inhaled into the body through nose and expelled carbon dioxide from the blood. Air is inhaled into the lungs in inspiration and it is expelled put in expiration. This exchange of gas occurs at alveoli of lung. Lung performs function of protection from infection due to presence of clilia on the epithelium and contains mucous. Lung clears all the air-borne infection through a process called mucociliary secretion. Diaphragm Diaphragm is a dome shaped sheet of skeletal muscle and fibrous tissue. Diaphragm performs important role in breathing. When diaphragm contract, thoracic cavity volume increase and air is drained into the lungs. Part 3. Digestive system component Structure Function Mouth Mouth contains salivary glands, teeth and the tongue. Vestibule and the oral cavity proper are the two regions of the mouth. Mouth is lined by mucous membrane. Moth performs function of chewing and breaking of food and mixing with saliva to make food more absorbable. Esophagus Esophagus is a muscular tube between pharynx and stomach. In adults its average length id 25 cm. Esophagus is divided into cervical, thoracic and abdominal parts. Esophagus transports food from mouth to stomach through muscular peristalsis. Stomach Stomach is J shaped organ and connects duodenum and esophagus. Stomach is divided into four sections like gastric cardia, fundus, body and pylorus. Gastric acid comprising of hydrochloric and sodium chloride, plays significant role in the digestive process. Pylorus aids in emptying food content in the small intestine. Small intestine Small intestine connects stomach to the large intestine. In human adults, average length of small intestine is around 7.0 m and diameter is around 2.5-3 cm. Small intestine is divided in to three parts like duodenum (approximately 20-25 cm long), jejunum (approximately 2.5 m long) and ileum (approximately 3.0 m long). Small intestine performs function of proteins, carbohydrate and lipids under the influence of photolytic enzymes, amylases and lipases respectively. Villi and microvilli present on the inner wall of the intestine facilitate absorption of nutrients. Gut flora in the intestine supports immune system of the body. Large intestine In human average length of large intestine is approximately 1.5 metre. It comprises of cecum (8.7 cm inner corcumference), colon, rectum (5.7 cm), and anal canal. Colon comprises of ascending (6.6 cm), transverse (5.8 cm) and descending colon (6.3 cm). Large intestine is specifically performing function of processing waste material. Alveoli Alveoli is a hollow cavity at the end of respiratory tree. Exchange of gases between lungs and blood. Nasal cavity Nasal cavity is a hollow space and the entry point of respiratory tract. It is lined with mucus membrane and hairs. Air enters into body and get filtered through nasal cavity. Larynx Hollw muscular organ between laryngopharynx to the trachea. Aid air passage to lungs. Epiglottis It is made of elastic cartilage present at entrance of larynx. It prevents aspiration. TAQ.2: Air is inhaled and exhaled in and out of the body through nose. At the time of inspiration oxygen enters into the body and during expiration carbon dioxide is thrown out form the body. This whole process is called as breathing or ventilation. When air is inhaled, diaphragm gets contracted and there is increase in the volume of thoracic cavity and decrease in the pressure in the thorax region which results in the enlargement of the lungs and this leads to the entry of the inhaled air along with oxygen into the lungs through trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. In trachea due to the presence of cilia and mucociliary action air and oxygen without contamination enters the lung. At the terminal end of the bronchiole alveolar ducts and sacs are present. These alveolar ducts and sacs are innervated with the blood capillaries. Surface of alveoli are main location for the gaseous exchange. Oxygen inhaled from the environment which is present in the alveolar duct and sacs passed through the alve olar capillaries into the blood stream through process of diffusion. This oxygenated blood enters the left atrium of the heart and pumped into left ventricle. From left ventricle blood is transported to different parts of the body through aorts, arteries. These arteries are innervated to different parts of the body and supply oxygen through the blood. Also carbon dioxide which is collected as waste product forms the different parts of the body comes into contact with the surface of alveolar ducts and sacs through alveolar capillaries. Superior and inferior vena cava collect deoxygenated blood from the lung to the right atrium and again pass on to the right ventricle. From right ventricle blood pumped into the pulmonary artery and carried to the lungs for re-oxygenation. This deoxygenated blood while transporting through lungs comes into contact with alveolar air and there is a very thin wall of approximately 0.5 m thickness present between blood and air. Hence, pressure of gas (PO2 and PCo2) in the blood automatically gets equilibrated with the alveoli. Increase in the PCo2 leads to the slight decrease in the PO2 and this result in the deep and faster breathing and inhalation of more oxygen until PO2 returns to normal level. On the other side if PCo2 falls and PO2 increases and this leads to the slower breathing and exhalation of carbon dioxide gets reduced. Gas exchange in the lungs mainly occurs through the process of diffusion that means gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide moves from the high concentration to the low concentration. If PO2 is less in alveoli, oxygen diffuse into alveoli and if PCo2 is more in blood capillaries, carbon dioxide diffuse into alveoli and exhaled through expiration. This carbon dioxide gets transported into the alveolar venules through diffusion. This carbon dioxide once entered into the alveoli, gets expelled out through the route of bronchiole, bronchi, trachea and nose. During this exhalation of carbon dioxide diaphragm gets relaxed and chest and abdomen returns to their elasticity directed position. This resting position of the thorax leads to the exhalation of the carbon dioxide. TAQ.3. Digestive enzymes are the enzymes which break down macromolecular polymers like fats, carbohydrate and proteins in to their smaller forms and convert them into easily absorbable form. Based on their target macromolecules enzymes can be classified as lipases which break down proteins into their peptides and amino acids, amylases break down polymeric carbohydrates into monomeric carbohydrates, lipases break down fats and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Different parts of the digestive tract secrets different enzymes and these enzymes plays different role in the digestion of the food. Salivary glands in the mouth secrets different enzymes like lingual lipase, salivary amylase and lysozyme. Enzymes of the salivary gland perform both the functions of digestion of food substances and prevention of infection due to food. Stomach secrets gastric enzymes. Pepsin secreted by the stomach breaks down proteins into peptide and amino acids. This protein digestion for the first time starts in the stomach and digestion of carbohydrates and fays starts in the mouth. Gastric chief cells secrets gastric lipase which is an acidic lipase facilitates fat hydrolysis. Pancreatic juice of the pancreases secrets different enzymes like trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen carboxypeptidase and elastases are the proteolytic enzymes. Pancreatic lipases and amylase digest lipids and carbohydrate respectively. Pancreas also secrets sterol esterase and phospholipase. Some of the enzymes available in the small intestine are primarily secreted by the pancreas and transported to the small intestine through pancreatic duct. These enzymes enter the small intestine under the influence of cholecystokinin hormone. Across the lining of the small intestine there are many enzymes secreted and these enzymes digest chime form stomach into smaller particles which are more absorbable. Peptones and polypeptides get converted in to amino acids by erepsin. Maltose gets converted into glucose by maltase. Lactose gets converted into glucose and galactose by lactase. Sucrose gets converted into glucose and fructose by sucrose. Cardiovascular System: Cardiovascular system through its numerous blood vessels and blood transport important nutrients, oxygen, hormones and enzymes to cells in the entire body. Cardiovascular system also performs function of removing nitrogenous waste from the body and expelling carbon dioxide from the blood. Cells need oxygen and n the blood capillaries, oxygen diffuses out of the blood and transports in the cells of the human body. Cells required to remove carbon dioxide, gets absorbed into blood circulation transported to the lungs for purification. Cells requisite nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. Blood supplies these nutrients to the cells. Respiratory system: Oxygen intake and removal of carbon dioxide is very essential for cells for normal functioning. Respiratory system inhale oxygen from the atmosphere through breathing. This inhaled oxygen enters lungs and oxygen enters into the blood capillaries (arteries). This inhaled oxygen through blood capillaries (arteries) transported to the cells present in the different parts of the body. Carbon dioxide exchange occurs between cells of the body and blood capillaries (venules). Carbon dioxide transported from the blood capillaries to the heart and subsequently to the lungs. From lungs carbon dioxide expeleeted through breathing. Gastrointestinal system: Every cell requires nutrients for their growth and maintenance. Digestive system brakes down the consumed food in the form of macromolecules into the smaller and easily absorbable particles. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins get digested into sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids, respectively. These sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids can be easily absorbed. This digestive process occurs both through mechanical and enzymatic means. This digested food material easily gets absorbed through the intestine as intestine is the main site for the absorption. Intestine contains villi and microvilli and this villus contains blood vessels and food gets absorbed. Absorbed food nutrient is transported to the cells through blood vessels. References: Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., Walters, P., Molecular Biology of the Cell , (4th ed.). New York and London, Garland Science, 2002. Tortora, G. J., Anagnostakos, N. P., Principles of anatomy and physiology, Seventh ed. New York, Harper Row, Publishers, 1993. Arthur, G. and John, H., Guyton Textbook of Medical Physiology. 11 th edn. Elsevier Saunders, 2006. Kong, F. and Singh, R.P, Disintegration of solid foods in human stomach, Journal of Food Science, vol. 73, no. 5, 2008, p. R67. Tortora, G. J., Anagnostakos, N. P., Principles of anatomy and physiology, Seventh ed. New York, Harper Row, Publishers, 1993. West, J.B., Respiratory physiology-the essentials. Baltimore: Williams Wilkins, 2011. Tortora, G. J., Anagnostakos, N. P., Principles of anatomy and physiology, Seventh ed. New York, Harper Row, Publishers, 1993.